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littp://www.arcliive.org/details/comparativegrammOOmarc 


A  COMPARATIVE  GRAMMAR 


OF  THE 


ANGLO-SAXON  LANGUAGE 


IN  WHICH 


ITS  FOmiS  ARE  ILLUSTRATED 


BT  THOSE   OF  TUE 


SANSKRIT,  GREEK,  LATIN,  GOTHIC,  OLD  SAXON,  OLD  FRIESIC, 
OLD  NORSE,  AND  OLD  HIGH -GERMAN. 


By  FEANCIS  A.  MAECH,  LL.D., 

PKOFESSOE  OP  THE  ENGLISn  LANGUAGE  AND  COMPAEATIVB  PHILOLOGY  IN  LAFAYETTE 

COLLEGE,    ACTUOE    OF     "METHOD    OF    PHILOLOGICAL    STUDY    OF    TUE 

ENGLISH   LANGUAGE,"  "AN   ANGLO-SAXON   REAPEE,"    ETC. 


NEW    YORK: 
HARPER   &    BROTHERS,    PUBLISHERS, 

FRANKLIN   SQCAEE. 
187  I. 


^//^. 


Entered,  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1S69,  by 

FRANCIS    A.    MARCH, 

In  the  Clerk's  Office  of  the  District  Court  of  the  United  States  for  the  Eastern  District  of 
Pennsylvania. 


\3\ 
PREFACE. 


The  Anglo-Saxon  language  has  been  studied  at  Lafayette 
College  for  many  years  in  the  light  of  modern  philology.  It 
seemed  necessary  to  print,  for  the  use  of  its  students,  general 
laws  of  phonology  and  syntax,  with  tables  of  analogous  para- 
digms, prefixes,  sufiixes,  and  idioms.  In  preparing  this  outline 
for  the  press,  love  of  the  work  has  led  me  to  fill  it  up  into  a 
Comparative  Grammar.  Other  Comparative  Grammars  have 
discussed  several  languages,  each  for  the  illustration  of  all,  and 
of  language  in  general ;  this  book  is  an  Anglo-Saxon  Gram- 
mar, and  uses  forms  of  other  tongues  and  general  laws  of  lan- 
guage only  so  far  as  they  illustrate  the  Anglo-Saxon. 

The  hope  has,  however,  been  cherished  that  the  methods  of 
Comparative  Grammar  might  be  exemplified  more  fully  than 
they  have  yet  been  for  our  students,  in  connection  with  the 
early  forms  of  our  mother  tongue,  and  that  in  this  way  the 
Anglo-Saxon  might  be  associated  with  the  modern  Science  of 
Language,  and  share  its  honors. 

If  this  hope  should  be  answered,  the  book  may  serve  as  an 
introduction  to  the  masters  in  whose  light  it  has  grown  up — 
to  Jacob  GKnnr,  the  greatest  genius  among  the  grammarians, 
whose  imagination  and  heart  are  as  cpiick  as  his  reason  and 
industry,  and  make  his  histories  of  speech  as  inspiring  as  poet- 
ry— to  Francis  Bopp,  impersonation  of  pure  science,  who  never 
spreads  his  wings,  but  who  pursues  his  thread  of  tliought  with 
unfailing  sagacity  till  he  loses  it  in  the  islands  of  the  Pacific 
— to  George  Curtius,  master  of  the  new  and  the  old,  surest 
and  safest  of  guides — to  Pott — to  Kuhn  and  his  collaborators. 
Special  students  of  Anglo-Saxon  must  spend  their  days  and 
nights  with  Greest,  whose  Glossary  of  Anglo-Saxon  Poetry 
first  made  possible  a  thorough  treatment  of  its  grammar,  and 
to  whom  this  work  is  every  where  indebted.  Maetzner,  and 
Kocn,  and  IIeyne  liave  also  been  my  constant  companions. 


1839133 


iv  PREFACE. 

ScHLEicnEK,  RuMPELT,  and  IIoLTZMAN  I  liavG  used  most  in 
phonology  and  etymology,  Becker  in  syntax. 

There  are  a  good  many  Anglo-Saxon  Grammars.  The  Lat- 
in Grammar  of  -^lfkic,  written  in  Anglo-Saxon,  is  a  valiiable 
Anglo-Saxon  Grammar.  Other  grammars,  to  the  time  of  Rask, 
are  mainly  arrangements  of  the  declensions  and  inflections  on 
the  ground  of  external  resemblances,  with  outlines  of  syntax. 
Some  of  them  are  learned  works.  Rask  classified  on  the  basis 
of  the  supposed  stems,  but  with  mistaken  views.  The  real  re- 
lations of  the  Anglo-Saxon  inflections  were  fixed  by  Bopp  in 
fixing  those  of  the  Gothic.  In  German,  Anglo-Saxon  has  a 
place  in  the  Comparative  Grammars  of  Grimm,  Heyne,  and 
others,  and  in  the  great  English  Grammars  of  Maetzner  and 
Koch.  The  English  still  use  Rask ;  Hadley,  in  "Webster's  Dic- 
tionary, goes  with  Grimm.  It  is  pleasant  to  remember  that 
^  Jefferson,  who  started  this  study  in  our  colleges  in  his  Uni- 
versity of  Virginia,  made  an  Anglo-Saxon  Grammar. 

Labor  has  not  been  spared  to  fit  this  book  for  use.  The  ex 
amples  have  been  translated;  the  citations  made  easy  to  verify; 
leading  rules  and  groups  of  facts  have  been  brought  together; 
indexes  have  been  made ;  the  resources  of  the  printer  freely 
used  to  make  every  thing  distinct.  Paradigms  and  the  histor- 
ical discussion  of  them  are  kept  on  opposite  pages,  so  that  they 
may  lie  before  the  eye  together.  The  type  has  sometimes  been 
varied  for  that  purpose,  and  spaces  filled  with  matter  not  strict- 
ly in  the  plan,  such  as  the  changes  from  Anglo-Saxon  to  En- 
glish. 

I  wish  to  thank  William  G.  Medlicott,  Esq.,  of  Longmeadow, 
•  Massachusetts ;  he  let  me  take  from  his  precious  collection,  and 
use  at  my  ovm  home,  Anglo-Saxon  texts  not  elsewhere  to  be 
had  for  love  or  money.  And,  finally,  all  those  who  find  this 
book  of  value  should  join  me  in  thanks  to  the  Trustees  and 
Faculty  of  Lafayette  College,  who  were  the  first  to  unite 
in  one  Professorship  the  study  of  the  English  language  and 
Comparative  Philology,  and  who  have  set  apart  time  for  these 
studies,  and  funds  for  the  necessaiy  apparatus  to  pursue  them. 

Francis  A.  March. 

Easton,  October  25, 1  SCO. 


CONTENTS. 


1.  IxTRODCCTiox — Historical 1 


PARI"  I. 

PHONOLOGY. 


Section  Pige 

General  View. 

10.  Alphabet 4 

13.  Punctuation 5 

14.  Sounds 5 

15.  Accent G 

16.  Classes  of  Vowels G 

17.  Classes  of  Consonants 7 

1 8.  Indo-European  Vowel  System . .  8 

\'J.       Consonant  System 8 

20.  Changes  of  Sound 9 

20.  Laws  of  Letter  Change 10 

Special  Discussions. 

21.  Classic  Anglo-Saxon 11 

22.  Voice 11 

23.  Vowels — Anglo-Saxon 11 

26.  Northumbrian 14 

27.  Consonants — Anglo-Saxon 15 

31.  Northumbrian 18 

Variation. 

32.  Euphonic  Changes 19 

32.  Umlaut 19 

33.  Breaking 20 

34.  Assibilation 20 


Section  Page 

3.3.       Assimilation 22 

36.  Dissimilation 24 

37.  Compensation 25 

Accentual  Changes. 

38.  Gravitation 2G 

38.       Progression 2G 

38.  Precession 2G 

39.  Ablaut 28 

40.  Mimetic  Changes 28 

Etymologic  Changes. 

41.  Shifting 28 

FiGUEATIOy. 

43.  Aphffiresis SO 

44.  Apocope 31 

45.  Elision 31 

4G.  Syncope 31 

47.  Ecthlipsis 31 

48.  Prothesis 31 

49.  Epithesis 31 

i>0.  Epenthesis 31 

51.  Metathesis 32 

Contraction. 

52.  SynjEresis 32 


PAET  11. 

ETYMOLOGY. 


.53.  Definitions .33 

59.  Classification 34 

Nouns. 
CO.  Case  Endings .34 


G4. 
67. 


C9. 


Declension 36 

Gender 37 

Strong  Nouns. 

Declension  Y. 38 


VI 


CONTENTS. 


88. 
'.•'J. 
•Jl. 


100. 
JOl. 
102. 

104. 

io:>. 

lOG. 
119. 
121, 
122 
130. 
138. 

U9. 
157. 
i:)8, 
159. 
IGO. 
101. 
1G2. 


Declension  2 

Declension  3 

Northumbrian 

Weak  Nouns. 

Declension  4 

Northumbrian 

Irregular  Nouns 

Proper  Names 

Decay  of  Case  Endings. 

Adjectivks. 
])eclension  Indefinite... 

Declension  Definite 

Varjing  Forms 

Participles 

Northumbrian , 

Comparison 

Pronouns 

Numerals 

Verb. 

Definitions 

Conjugations: 

From  Ablaut 

From  Contraction.. 
From  Composition. 

Tense  Stems 

Mode  Suffixes 


PaRC 

44 

48 
49 


Deriv 

227.  Definitions 118 

228.  Suffixes 119 

230.  Stems  by  Variation 122 

281.  Formation  of  Substantives....  123 

240.       Adjectives 125 

246.       Verb .  12G 

251.       Adverb 128 


Section  P(M?0 

1G3.  Personal  Endings 82 

Paradi<jms. 

Strong  Verb. 

IGI.  Indicative  Tenses 82 

1G9.  Subjunctive  Tenses 8G 

172.  Imperative 88 

173.  Infinitive 83 

173.  Participle 88 

17G.  Potential 88 

177.  Other  Periphrastic 8!) 

178.  Passive  Voice 90 

Weak  Verb. 
183.  Active  Voice 92 

187.  Passive  Voice 91 

188.  Varying  Presents 94 

189.  Syncopated  Imperfects 95 

190.  Syncopated  Participle 95 

Weak  and  Strong. 

191.  Umlaut  in  the  Present 9G 

192.  Assimilation Q& 

197.  Varying  Imperfects 98 

198.  Summary  of  Variations 98 

199.  Table  of  Varijhig  Verbs 99 

212.  Irregular  Verbs 112 

225.       Northumbrian 117 

22G.  "Weathering  of  Endings 118 

ATION. 

253.       Preposition 130 

253.       Prefixes 130 

2G0.       Particles 132 

2G2.       Conjunctions 133 

2G3.       Interjections 133 

2G4.  Composition 134 

2G8.  Forms  to  express  Gender 135 


278. 
98r. 


PAKT  III. 


SYNTAX. 


272.  Simple  Combinations 1.''7 

Sentences,  Clauses 1 39 

Figures  of  Syntax 141 

Nouns. 
Usc&  of  Case  Endings. 

286.  Agreement 142 

288.  Nominative 144 


Accusative : 
290.  In  Objective  Combinations...  145 

293.  In  Quasi-predicative 147 

295.  In  Adverbial 148 

Dative : 
297.  In  01)jective  Combinations. ...  148 
302.  In  Adverbial  Combinations...  151 


289.  Vocative 144    301.  In  Quasi-predicative 152 


CONTENTS. 


VU 


Section  Page 

306.  Instrumental 153 

Genitive : 
310.  In  Attributive  Combinations..  153 

314.  In  Predicative  Combinations..  155 

315.  In  Objective  Combinations 155 

322.  In  Adverbial  Combinations...  158 

Uses  of  Prepositions. 

327.  Rules 158 

330.  Table  of. 159 

Adjectives. 

301.  Agreement 172 

362.  Strong  or  Weak 173 

Pronouns. 

306.  Personal 174 

367.  Possessive 175 

368.  Article 175 

374.  Demonstratives 177 

377.  Interrogative 178 

379.  Relative ,  178 

386.  Indefinite 180 

393.                  NcstEEALS 181 

395.                  Adverbs 182 

399.                  Particles 184 

Verbs. 

Uses  of  the  Verb  Forms. 

401.  Agreement 185 


Section 

406.  Kinds  of  Verbs 

407.  Voice 

411.  Tense 

Mode : 

420.  Indicative 

421.  Subjunctive 

In  Subordinate  Clauses, 

422.  By  Attraction 

423.  In  Substantive  Clauses ... 

427.  In  Adjective  Clauses 

428.  In  Adverbial  Clauses 

435.       Potential 

444.  Imperative 

445.  Infinitive 

450.       Gerund 

455.       Participles 

400.       Verbals 

461.  Interjections 

Conjunctions. 
402.  Co-ordinate 

467.  Subordinate : 

468.  In  Substantive  Clauses 

470.  In  Adjective  Clauses 

471.  In  Adverbial  Clauses 

478.  Conjunctions  omitted 

482.  Principal  Rules  of  Syntax ... 


Pags 

186 

187 
187 

190 
191 

191 
192 
193 
193 
195 
196 
197 
198 
200 
201 
202 

202 
205 
206 
207 
207 
208 
209 


ARRANGEMENT. 

483.  General  Laws 214    493.  Adverbial  Combinations 219 


484.  Predicative  Combinations 214 

487.  Attributive  Combinations 216 

491.  Objective  Combinations 218 


Clauses : 

495.  Co-ordinate 220 

495.  Subordinate 220 


PART  IV. 

PROSODY. 


496.  Rhvthm 222 


498. 
499. 
,''.01. 
502. 


Feet 222 

Verse 222 

Caesura 223 

Rime 223 


.503.  Alliteration 223 

.509.  Common  Narrative  Verse 225 

511.  Riming  Verses 226 

512.  Long  Narrative  Verse 227 

514.  Alliterative  Prose 228 


Indexes  of  Words  and  Subjects 229 


ANGLO-SAXON   TEXTS 

CITED  IN   THIS   WORK,  WITH   THE   LESS   OBVIOUS   ABBRE- 
VIATIONS. 


Adriamts  and  Ritheus,  Ettmuller,  30. 

jEdelhirht,  jEdelred,  jEdelstan,  Alfred,  LL., 
Laws  lu  Schmid. 

^delstdn,  Alfred,  verses  about,  Grain,  i., 
352,  357. 

JElfric,  Grammar,  in  Somner's  Dictionary. 

jElfrie,  Colloquy,  iu  Thorpe's  Aualecta. 

Al-moaen,  Greln,  ii.,  350=Religious  Poem,  Ex. 
46T. 

Aivalecta.  Anglo-Saxonica.  B.  Thorpe.  Lon- 
don, 1S46. 

A)idreds,  Grein,  ii.,  9 ;  Verc,  i.,  1. 

Apollonms  of  Tyre.  B.  Thorpe.  London, 
1834. 

Azarias,  Grein,  i.,  115 ;  Ex.  1S5. 

St.  B.  —  St,  Basil,  Ilexamerou.  Eev.  II.  W. 
Norman.    London,  1S49. 

Bed.  =  Beda,  IlistoriiB  ecclesiast.  Anglorum. 
Smith.    Cantab.,  1T22. 

B§d.^=Beda,  llistorise  ecclesiast.  Anglornm. 
Whelocus.    Cantab.,  1644 

B.=Beomdf,  Grein,  i.,  255. 

/Joff.znBoet/iMMdeConsolationePhilosophiae. 
Cardale.  London,  1829.  Jl/^et.  ^Metra  iu 
Greiu. 

BotHchaft  des  Gemahls,  Gre'm,i.,  246  =  Frag- 
ments, Ex.  472-475. 

Bi/rhtnoth,  Grein,  i.,  343. 

C.=Caedmon.  One  figure  denotes  the  line  in 
Grein ;  two,  the  page  and  line  In  Thorpe. 
London,  1832. 

Ch.=Chaucer.  Wright.  Percy  Society.  Lon- 
don, 1.^7. 

Chrint  (Cynewulf's),  Grein,  149  =  To  Jesus 
Christ,  Ex.  1-103. 

C^r.  =  Chronicle,  Anglo-Saxon.  B.  Thorpe. 
London,  1801. 

Cnut,  LL.    Laws  in  Schmid. 

Codex  DiploiiMtictiH  Anrf.-Sax.  J.  M.  Kem- 
ble,  for  the  English  Historical  Society.  C 
vols.    Loudini,  1839-1848. 

Codex  Exonieiiifis.  B.  Thorpe,  for  the  Society 
of  Antiquaries  of  London.    London,  1842. 

Codex  Vereellensia.  J.  M.  Kcmble,  for  the  Ai\- 
fric  Society.    London,  1843-56. 

Colloquium.    M\Mc,  iu  Thorpe's  Analecta. 

Crseftas  mannd,  Grein,  i.,  204  =  On  the  En- 
dowments and  Pursuits  of  men,  Ex.  293. 

CiWftcrf,  Thorpe's  Analecta,  .12 ;  Hom.,  ii., 
132. 

C'jrun,  Thorpe's  Aualecta,  88 ;  Oros.,  ii.,  4,  5. 

Daniel,  Grein,  i.,  94. 

Vedrn  Klage,  Grein,  i.,  249=Dcor  the  Scald's 

Complaint,  Ex.  .377. 
Detiteronomy,  Thwaites. 


Domes  dseg,  Grein,  i.,  195=The  Day  of  Judg- 
ment, Ex.  445. 
Durham  Book.    See  Northumbrian. 

Eadgar,  Eddmund,  Eddwine,  LL.  Laws  in 
Schmid. 

Eddgdr,  Eddmund,  Poems,  Grein,  i.,  355. 

Ecfjhert,  Confessionale  et  Pcenitentiale,  iu 
Laws  of  England.  B.  Thorpe,  for  the  Rec- 
ord Commission,  1840. 

Elene,  Grein,  ii.,  105 ;  Verc,  ii.,  1. 

Ettmiiller,  Ang.-Sax.  poetae  atque  scriptorea 
prosaici.    Quedl.  et  Lipsise,  1860. 

Ex.^^Codex  Exoniensis,  page  and  line. 

Exod.— Exodus,  Thwaites. 

Feeder  Idrcpidds,  Grein,  ii.,  347=A  Father's 

Instruction,  Ex.  300. 
Fata  Apostolorum,  Grein,  ii.,  7  ;  Verc,  ii.,  94. 
De  Fide   Catholica,  Thorpe's  Analecta,  03 ; 

Horn.,  i.,  274. 
Pinnshurg  Ueberfall  in,  Grein,  i.,  341. 

Genesi%  Thwaites. 

Gnomici  versus,  Grein,  ii.,  339,  346. 

Grein,  Bibliothek  der  angelsiichsischen  poe- 
sie  in  kritisch  bearbeiteten  Texten  und  mit 
vollstiindigem  Glossar  herausgegebcn  von 
C.  W.  M.  Grein,  Dr.  Phil.  Cassel  and  Goet- 
tiugen,  1857-1864. 

Graff,  E.  G.,  Althochdeutscher  Sprachschatz, 
etymol.  und  grammatisch  bearbeitet.  Ber- 
lin, 1834+. 

St.  Gregorius,  Thorpe's  Analecta,  44  ;  Horn., 
ii.,  116. 

Gu<t.=GMl&c,  Grein,  ii.,  71=The  Legend  of 
St.  Guthlac,  Ex.  104, 107. 

iSt.  (T.=Life  ofGuthlac.  Goodwin.  London, 
1848. 

Heptateuch,  Thwaites. 

Uickes,  Ling.Vett.  Septentrionalium  Thesau- 
rus.   Oxon.,  1703-1705. 

lUodare,  LL.    Laws  in  Schmid. 

Ilollenfahrt,  Chri.iti,  Grein,  i.,  191=The  Har- 
rowing of  Hell,  Ex.  4.'j9. 

Zrom.=Homilies  of  .^Ifric.  B.  Thorpe,  for 
the  .(Elfric  Society.    London,  1344. 

Hymns,  Grein,  ii.,  280. 

Ine,  LL.    Laws  in  Schmid. 

c/o&,  Thwaites ;  Hom.,  ii.,  446. 

John,  Thorpe  or  Northumbrian. 

./osuf,  Thwaites. 

Judith,  Grein,  \.,  no :  Thwaites;  Thorpe's 

Analecta,  141 ;  ^^ttmiillcr,  140. 
I  Juliana,  Grein,  ii.,  52 ;  Ex.  242. 


X 


Klage  dcr  Fran,  Groin,  i.,  245=The  Exile's 

Complaint,  Ex.  441. 
Klipstein,  L.  F.,  Analecta  Ang.-Sax.    '2  vols. 

New  York,  1S56. 
Kreuz,  Das  heilige,  Grein,  ii.,  14.'5=The  Holy 

Kood,  Verc,  ii.,  S3. 

Layamon,  Brut.  Madden.  3  vols.  London, 
1847. 

LL.—Lav/s  in  Schmii!,  q.  v.,  or  Thorpe.  An- 
cient Laws  and  Institutes  of  England,  etc. 
2  vols.    For  the  Kecord  Commission,  1840. 

Lcechdoms,  etc.,  Kcv.  O.  Cockayne.  3  vols. 
London,  18C4-66. 

Bi  mannii  Icu.sc,  Grein,  ii.,  142=A  Fragment, 
moral  and  religions,  Verc,  ii.,  79. 

Leo,  II.,  Alt-  uud  Angelsiichsische  Sprach- 
proben.    Halle,  1838. 

L«c=//c.=Luke.    Thorpe  or  Northumbrian. 

Mrc. =Marc.    Thorpe  or  Northumbrian. 

Matthew.  Thorpe,  North.,  or  Kemble.  Cam- 
bridge, 1S5S. 

Menologium,  Grein,  ii.,  1,  or  Hickes. 

JI/?f.=Alfred'8  Meters  of  Boethius,  Grein,  ii., 
295. 

Mod  mannd,  Grein,  i.,  210=Monitory  Poem, 
Ex.  313. 

Xeot,  St.,  Life  of,  in  the  Hist,  and  Antiq.  of 
Eyuesbury  and  St.  Neot's.  G.  C.  Gorham, 
London,  1820. 

Xicodertnis,  Gospel  of,  Thwaites's  Hepta- 
teuch. 

Northumbrian  Gospels.  C.  G.  Bouterwek. 
Gutersloh,  1857.    Surtees,  1854-1863. 

Xumbers,  Thwaites. 

Orm.=Ormulum,  K.  M.  White.    2  vols.    Ox- 
ford, 1S52. 
Oros.—Orosius,  Bosworth.    London,  1859. 

Panther,  Grein,  1.,  233 ;  Ex.  355. 

Pharao,  Grein,  ii.,  350=A  Fragment,  Ex.  468. 

Phcenix,  Grein,  i.,  215;  Ex.  197. 

Psalms,  Grein,  ii.,  147. 

Thorpe.     Oxonii,  1835. 

Spelman.    Londini,  1640. 

Surtees  Society.    London,  1843-44. 
P.  T.  S.=Popular  Treatises  of  Science.    T. 
Wright.    London,  1841. 


R.  G'.=Robcrt  of  Gloucester.    Tb.  Ueame. 

London,  1810. 
Rebhuhn,  Grein,  i.,  237  =  A  Fragment,  Ex. 

365. 
Reimlied,  Grein,  ii.,  137=Riming  Poem,  Ex. 

352. 
Richthofen,  K.  von.,  Altfriesisches   Worter- 

buch.    Goettlugen,  1840. 
iJMWtei- =  Raetsel,  Grein,  ii.,  369;   Ex.470, 

etc. 
Rieger,  Alt-  nnd  angelsiichsisches  Lesebuch. 

Giesseu,  1861. 
Ruine,  Grein,  i.,  24S=The  Ruin,  Ex.  476. 
Runenlied,  Grein,  ii.,  351. 

Salomon  und  Saturn,  Grein,  ii,  354;  J.  M. 

Kemble,  for  the  iElfric  Society.    London, 

1848. 
Satan  (Crist  und  Satan),  Grein,  i.,  129. 
Schmid,  Die  Gesetxe  der  Augelsachseu.  Leip- 
zig, 1858. 
Screadunga  A ng.-Sax.,  K.  G.  Bouterwek.   El ■ 

berfeldffi,  185S. 
Seafarer  (Seefahrer),  Grein,  i.,  241,  Ex.  306. 
Seelen,  Reden  der,  Grein,  1.,  198=A  departed 

Soul's  address  to  the  Body,  Ex.  307. 
Somner,  Dictionarium  Sax.-Lat.-Angl.    Ac- 

cesserunt  jElfrici  abbatis  grammatica  Lat.- 

Sax.    Oxonii,  1059. 
St.  B.—St.  Basil.    See  Basil. 
St.  G.    See  Guthlac. 

Thorpe,  B.,  The  Anglo-Saxon  version  of  the 

Holy  Gospels.     London,  1842.     See  also 

Analecta  and  LL. 
Thwaites,  Edw.,  Heptateuchns,  Liber  Job,  et 

evangelium   Nicodemi,  Historiae    Jnditli 

fragmentum.    Oxonias,  1698. 
Traveler's  Stmg=Vldsid—1he  Scop's  Tale, 

Grein,  i.,  251,  Ex.  318. 

Vercellensis  Codex.    See  Codex  Verc. 

Manna  pyrete,  Grein,  i.,  207=On  the  various 
Fortunes  of  Men,  Ex.  327. 

Walfisch,  Grein,  i.,  235~Wbale,  Ex.  360. 
Wanderer,  Grein,  i.,  2ii>S ;  Ex.  286. 
Widz=  Vidsid.    See  Traveler's  Song. 
IFwnder  der   acki'ipfung,  Grein,  1.,  213  =  The 
Wonders  of  the  Creation,  Ex.  340. 


V  prefixed, marks  a  root ;  —  prefixed,  marks  a  snfHx ;  -  suffixed,  marks  a  prefix  or  stem ; 
+  suffixed  to  the  number  of  a  page  or  section  means  and  the  following,  elsewhere  +  means 
together  with;  <  or  >  is  placed  between  two  words  when  one  is  derived  from  the  other, 
the  angle  pointing  to  the  derived  word  ;  <  may  be  read  .from,  >  xchence;  =  means  equiv- 
alent to;  :  means  akin  to;  over  words  indicates  that  they  are  to  be  treated  iu  some  re- 
spect as  one. 


LANGUAGES  OFTENEST  MENTIONED. 


/l.-.9.=AngIo-Saxon. 

Celtic. 

Danish. 

Dutch. 

English. 

French. 

Friesic. 

German. 

Gothic. 

Greek. 

/7.=:High. 

Indo-European. 


Irish. 

Italian. 

/v.=Low. 

Latin. 

Lettic. 

Lithuanic. 

3f.=Middle. 

Norman. 

Norse. 

0.=01d. 

O.  Frif.s.=0\A  Friesic. 

0.  H.  (?.=01d  High  German. 


See  page  3. 

O.  A'.=01d  Norse. 

O.  S.=01d  Saxon. 

P.  /§.= Parent  Speech. 

Romaic. 

Romanic. 

Sanskrit. 

Saxon. 

Scandinavian. 

Semi-Saxon. 

Slavonic. 

Swedish. 

Welsh. 


GRAMMATICAL  HELPS 


^? /Vic.— Grammar,  lu  Somner's  Dictionary. 

Becker,  K.  K— Organism.   Fraiikf.  a.  M.,  1841. 

Benfey,  T/j.  —  Gnechisches  Wurzellexikou. 
Berlin,  1839, 1842. 

Benfey,  Th.  —  Sanskrit  Grammar.  London 
and  Berlin,  1803. 

Bopp,  P. — Vergleichende  Grammatik.  2 
Ausgabe.    Berlin,  1857-61. 

Bopp,  F. — Glossarium  Sanscritum.  Ed.  ter- 
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Boswerth,  J.— The  Elements  of  the  Anglo- 
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Bosworth,  J. — A  Dictionary  of  the  Ang.-Sax. 
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Anglo-Saxon  Grammar.    London,  1838. 

Boutencek,  K.  W. —Die  Vier  Evangelien  in 
alt-nordhumbrischer  Sprache.  Giitersloh, 
1S5T.  The  Introduction  has  a  learned  dis- 
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Clnld,  F.  G. — Observations  on  the  Laugna^e 
of  Chaucer  and  Gower.  Mem.  Amer.  Acad., 
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Corssen,  W. — Kritische  Beitrage  zur  lat.  For- 
menlehre.    Leipzig,  1SG3. 

Corssen,  W. — TTeber  Aussprache,  Vokalismus 
und  Betonuug  der  lat.  Sprache.  Leipzig, 
1S59. 

Crosby,  ^.— Greek  Grammar.  4th  edition. 
Boston,  1848. 

Curtius,  Georg. — Grundziige  der  griechischen 
Etymologic.    2  Auflage.    Leipzig,  1866. 

Curtivs,  Georg.  —  De  Nomiuum  Grjecorum 
formatioue.    Berlin,  1842. 

Curtius,  Georg. — Griechische  Schulgramma- 
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De  Vere,  M.  Scheie. — Outlines  of  Comp.  Phil. 
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Dif/enbachj  L. — Vergleichendes  Worterbuch 
der  gothischen  Sprache.  Frankfurt  a.  SI., 
1851. 

Dietrich,  Prof.  Fr.,  in  Ilaupt's  Zeitschrift. 

Diez,  F. — Grammatik  der  IJomauischen  Spra- 
chen.     Bonn,  1856-1860. 

Ektob,  Elizabeth.— The  Rudiments  of  Gram- 
mar for  the  English-Saxon  Tongue,  first 
giyen  in  English,  etc.,  etc.    London,  1715. 

EttmUller,  //.—Lexicon  Anglosaxonicum  cum 

8YN0PSI   OEAM.MATICA.      OUCdliub.  Ct   LipS., 

1S51. 
Fowler,W.C.—The  English  Language.    N. 

Y.,  1864. 
Grein,  C.  W.  M.  —  Sprachschatz    der    angel- 

eachsischen  Dichter.    Cassel  and  Giittin- 

gen,  1861-1864. 
Grein, C.W'.j*/.— Ablaut,  Reduplication,  etc. 

Cassel  and  Giittingen,  1862. 
Grimm,  J.— Deutsche  Grammatik.     Guttin- 

gen, 1819-1S40. 
Grimm,  J.—Gcech.  der  dcutschen  Sprache, 

Leipzig,  18.53. 
Gu&it,  £.— English  Rhythms.     Lond.,  1838. 
Iladleg,  J. — A  Greek  Grammar  for  Schools 

and  Colleges.    Now  York,  1864. 
Uadley,  J.— A  brief  History  of  the  English 

Language,  in  Webster's  Dictionary,  edition 

of  1865. 
JIaldeman,  S.  S.  —  Analytic     Orthography. 

Philadelphia,  180(J. 


Uarkness,  A.— A  Latin  Grammar  for  Schools 
and  Colleges.    New  York,  1S65. 

Haupt,  Jf.— Zeitschrift  fiir  deutsches  Alter- 
thum.     Leipzig,  1841+. 

Ueyne,  Jif.— Kurtze  Laut-  und  Flexionslehrc 
der  altgermanischen  Sprachstiimme.  Pa- 
derborn,  1862. 

Uickes,  G. — InstitutionesGrammaticas  Anglo- 
Saxonicae  et Mceso-Gothicte.    Oxonite,  1688. 

Holtzman,  A.—Veher  den  Umlaut  Carls- 
ruhe,  1843. 

Holtzman,  .4.  — Ueber  den  Ablaut.  Carls- 
ruhe,  1844. 

Kiipstein,  L.  F.—-A  Grammar  of  the  Anglo- 
Saxon  Language.    New  York,  1853. 

Koch,  C.  -f'.— Historische  Grammatik  der  eu- 
glischen  Sprache.  Weimar,  1863  ;  Cassel 
and  Giitting.,  1865;  and  is  still  unfinished. 

Euhn,  Adalb. — Zeitschrift  fiir  vergleichende 
Sprachforschung  auf  dem  Gebiete  des 
Deutschen,  Griechischen  iindLateiuischeu. 
Berlin,  1S52-|-. 

Kuhn,  Adalb. — Beitriige  zur  vergleichenden 
Sprachforschung  auf  dem  Gebiete  der  ari- 
schen,  celtischeii,  und  slawischeu  Sprachen, 
herausgegeben  von  Kuhn  und  Schleicher. 
Berlin,  1868-}-. 

Latham,  E.  (?.— The  English  Language.  4th 
edition.    London,  1855. 

Liming,  H.— Die  Edda.  Mit  altnordischer 
Grammatik,  etc.    Zurich,  1S59. 

ilaetzner,  Ed.— ^ngW&che  Grammatik.  Ber- 
lin, 1860-1865. 

Marsh,  G.  P.— The  English  Language  and  its 
early  Literature.    New  York,  1802. 

Massmann,  H.  /<'.— TJlfilas.  Mit  sprachlehrc, 
etc.    Stuttgardt,  1857. 

Meyer,  Leo. — Vergleichende  Grammatik  der 
griechischen  uud  lateinischen  Sprache. 
Berlin,  1861-1865. 

Midler,  Max.— hectures  on  the  Science  of 
Language.    London,  1861. 

Mailer,  Max. — Second  Series.  London,  1SC4. 
"  "  A  Sanskrit  Grammar  for  Be- 
giuners.    London,  1866. 

Putt,  A.  i^.  —  Etymologische  Forschuupeu 
auf  dem  Gebiete  der  Indo-Germauischen 
Sprachen.    Lemgo,  1833-}-. 

Rank,  Erasmus. — A  Grammar  of  the  Anglo- 
Saxon  Tongue,  etc.  Transl.  from  the  Dan- 
ish by  B.  Thorpe.  Copenhag.,  1830 ;  Lou- 
don, 1805. 

Eumpelt,  H.  B.— Deutsche  Grammatik.  !MIt. 
Riicksicht  auf  vergleichende  Sprachfor- 
schung.   Erster  Theil.    Berlin,  1860. 

Schleicher,  Aug.  —  Compendium  der  ver- 
gleichenden Grammatik  der  Indo-German- 
ischen  Sprachen.  Weimar,  1802;  2d  ed., 
1806. 

Schmeller,  J.  A. — Heliand  oder  die  altsiichs- 
ische  Evangelien-Harmonie.  Mit  Worter- 
buch und  Grammatik.  Mon.,  Stuttg.,  et 
Tubinga?,1840. 

Schubert,  //.— A.-S.  Arte  Met.    Berlin,  1870. 

Somner.    See  Anglo-Saxon  Texts. 

Whitney,  IK.  />.— Language  and  the  Study  of 
Language.    New  York,  1807. 

Wilnon,  II.  //.—Sanskrit  (irammar  for  early 
Students.     L'-;dou,  1841. 


INTRODUCTION. 


1.  During  the  fifth  and  sixth  centuries,  England  was  conquer- 
ed and  peopled  by  j^agans  (Saxons,  Angles,  Jutes,  etc.)  from  the 
shores  of  the  North  Sea;  the  center  of  emigration  "was  near  the 
mouth  of  the  Elbe.  The  conquerors  spoke  many  dialects,  but 
most  of  them  were  Low  German.  Missionaries  were  sent  from 
Rome  (A.D.  597)  to  convert  them  to  Christianity.  The  Roman 
alphabetic  Avriting  was  thus  introduced,  and,  under  the  influence 
of  learned  native  ecclesiastics,  a  single  tongue  gradually  came  into 
iise  as  a  literary  language  through  the  whole  nation.  The  chief 
seat  of  learning  down  to  the  middle  of  the  eighth  century  was 
among  the  Angles  of  Xortlnimbcrland.  The  language  was  long 
called  Englisc  (English),  but  is  now  called  Anglo-Saxon.  Its  Au- 
gustan age  was  the  reign  of  Alfred  the  Great,  king  of  the  West 
Saxons  (A-D.  871-901).  lit  continued  to  be  written  till  the  col- 
loquial dialects,  through  the  influence  of  the  Anglo-iSTorman,  had 
diverged  so  far  from  it  as  to  make  it  unintelligible  to  the  people ; 
then,  under  the  cultivation  of  the  Wycliffite  translators  of  the  Bi- 
ble, and  of  Chaucer  and  his  fellows,  there  grew  out  of  these  dia- 
lects a  new  classic  language — the  English. 

2.  The  spelling  in  the  manuscripts  is  irregular,  but  the  Kortli- 
umbrlan  is  the  only  well-marked  dialect  of  the  Anglo-Saxon,  as 
old  as  its  classic  period  (lOtli  century),  which  has  yet  been  ex- 
plored. The  Gospels  and  some  other  works  have  been  printed  in 
it.     The  common  Anglo-Saxon  is  sometimes  called  West-Saxon. 

8.  After  the  period  of  pure  Anglo-Saxon,  there  was  written  an 
irregular  dialect  called  Semi-Saxon.  It  has  few  strange  words, 
but  the  inflections  and  syntax  are  broken  up  (12th  century). 

4.  The  former  inhabitants  of  Britain  were  Celts,  so  unlike  the 
invaders  in  race  and  speech,  and  so  despised  and  hated,  that  they 
did  not  mix.  There  are  in  the  Anglo-Saxon  a  handful  of  Celtic 
common  names,  and  a  good  many  geographical  names:  the  rela- 
tion of  the  Celtic  language  to  the  Anglo-Saxonvis  like  that  of  tlio 
l;ui<^Mi:i"os  of  the  aborigines  of  America  to  our  present  Eiif^lish. 

A 


2  INTKODUCTION. 

5.  The  Anglo-Saxon  Avas  shaped  to  literary  nsc  by  men  wlio 
■wrote  and  spoke  Latin,  and  thouglit  it  an  ideal  language ;  and  a 
large  j^art  of  the  literature  is  translated  or  imitated  from  Latin 
authors.  It  is  not  to  be  doubted,  therefore,  that  the  Latin  exer- 
cised a  great  influence  on  the  Anglo-Saxon :  if  it  did  not  lead  to 
the  introduction  of  wholly  new  forms,  cither  of  etymology  or 
syntax,  it  led  to  the  extended  and  uniform  \ise  of  those  forms 
which  are  like  the  Latin,  and  to  the  disuse  of  others,  so  as  to 
draw  the  grammars  near  each  otlicr.  There  are  a  considerable 
number  of  words  from  the  Latin,  mostly  connected  with  the 
Church  ;  three  or  four  through  the  Celts  from  the  elder  Romans. 

G.  There  are  many  Avords  in  Anglo-Saxon  more  like  the  Avords 
of  the  same  sense  in  ScandinaA'ian  than  like  any  Avords  Avhich  Ave 
find  in  the  Germanic  languages ;  but  the  remains  of  the  early  dia- 
lects are  so  scant  that  it  is  hard  to  tell  hoAV  far  such  AVords  Avere 
borroAA'ed  from  or  modified  by  tlie  Scandinavians.  Before  A.D. 
000  many  Danes  had  settled  in  England.  Danish  kings  afterAvard 
ruled  it  (A.D.  1013-1042).  Their  laws,  hoAvever,  are  in  Anglo- 
Saxon.  The  Danes  Avere  illiterate,  and  learned  the  Anglo-Saxon. 
Of  course  their  pronunciation  Avas  peculiar,  and  they  quickened 
and  modified  phonetic  decay.  It  is  probable  that  they  affected 
the  spoken  dialects  Avhich  have  come  up  as  English  more  than  the 
Avritten  literary  language  Avhich  Ave  call  Anglo-Saxon. 

7.  The  other  languages  sprung  from  the  dialects  of  Low  Ger- 
man tribes  are  Friesic,  Old  Saxon,  and,  later,  Dutch  (and  Flem- 
ish), and  Piatt  Deutsch.  The  talk  in  the  harbors  of  Antwerj), 
Bremen,  and  Hamburg  is  said  to  be  often  mistaken  by  English 
sailors  for  corrupt  English.  These  Loav  German  languages  arc 
akin  to  the  High  German  on  one  side,  and  to  the  Scandina- 
vian on  the  other.  These  all,  Avith  the  Moeso-Gothic,  constitute 
the  Teutonic  class  of  languages.  This  stands  parallel  Avith  the 
Lithuanic,  the  Slavonic,  and  the  Celtic,  and  Avith  the  Itahc,  the 
Hellenic,  the  Iranic,  and  the  Indie,  all  of  Avhich  belong  to  the 
Indo-European  family  of  languages.  The  parent  speech  of  this 
family  is  lost,  and  has  left  no  literary  monuments.  Its  seat  has 
been  supposed  to  have  been  on  the  heights  of  Central  Asia.  The 
Sanskrit,  an  ancient  language  of  India,  takes  its  place  at  the  head 
of  the  family.  Theoretical  roots  and  forms  of  inflection  are  given 
by  grammarians  as  those  of  the  Parent  Speech,  on  the  ground 
that  they  are  such  as  might  have  produced  the  surviving  roots 
and  forms  by  known  laAvs  of  change. 


INTKODUCTION. 


2    1 


8.  The  following  stem  shows  the  order  in  which  these  classes 
branched,  and  their  relative  age  and  remoteness  from  each  other. 
At  the  right  is  given  the  approximate  date  of  the  oldest  literary 
remains.     The  languages  earlier  than  these  remains  are  made  out 

like  the  Parent  Speech ;  that  is, 
roots  and  forms  are  taken  for  the 
language  at  each  j^eriod,  which 
will  give  the  roots  and  forms  of 
all  the  languages  which  branch 
from  it,  but  not  those  peculiar  to 
the  other  languages. 

A.  Indo-European.     Parent  Speech. 

1.  Indie.     B.C.  1500.     Sanskrit  Vedas. 

2.  Iranie.     B.C.  1000.    Bactrian  Avesta. 

3.  Hellenic.     Before  B.C.  800.     Greek. 

4.  Italic.     B.C.  200.     Latin. 

5.  Teutonic.    4th  Century.    RIoeso-Gothic 
Bible. 

G.  Celtic.     8th  Century. 

7.  Slavonic.      9th   Century.       Bulgarian 
Bible. 

8.  Lithuanic.     IGth  Centurv. 


9.  The  following  stem  show.s  the  manner  in  which  the  lan- 
guages of  the  Teutonic  class  branch  after  separating  from  the 
Slavonic.     The  Gothic  (Moeso-Gothic)   died  without  issue ;  the 
Low  German  is  nearer  akin  to  it  than  the  High  German  is.     The 
branches  of  the  Scandinavian   (Swedish, 
t   ic  Danish,  Norwegian)  are  not  represented. 


Teutonic.     Theoretic. 

Gothic.     4th  Century. 

Germanic.     Theoretic. 

Scandinavian.     13th  Century. 

High  German.     8th  Century. 

Low  German.     Theoretic. 

Friesic.     14th  Century. 

Saxon.     Theoretic. 

Anglo-Saxon.     8th  Century. 
i.  Old  Saxon.     9th  Century. 
/.-.  riatt  Deutsch.     14th  Ccntnry. 
/.  Dutch.     13th  Century. 


PART    I. 
PHONOLOGY. 


10.  Alphabet. — The  Anglo-Saxon  alphabet  has  twenty-four 
letters.  All  but  three  are  lloman  characters :  the  variations  from 
the  common  form  are  cacographic  fancies,  P  \y  (thorn),  and  P  i> 
(wen),  arc  runes.  D  d  (edh)  is  a  crossed  d,  used  for  the  older  \), 
oftenest  in  the  middle  and  at  the  end  of  words. 


Old  Forms. 

Simple  1 

Forms. 

rtoma 

in. 

Names. 

"X    a 

A 

a 

A 

a 

ah 

je  ae 

JE 

03 

yE 

re 

a 

B    h 

B 

b 

P> 

b 

bay 

E    c 

C 

c 

C 

c 

cay 

D    b 

D 

d 

P 

d 

day 

B    S 

D 

ct 

DII 

dh 

edh 

e    e 

E 

e 

E 

e 

ay 

F     F 

V 

f 

F 

f 

ef 

I^    3 

G 

A" 

G 

O" 

gay 

phh 

11 

li 

II 

h 

hah 

T     1 

I 

i 

I 

i 

ee 

L    I 

L 

1 

L 

1 

el 

CO    m 

M 

m 

M 

m 

cm 

N    n 

N 

1) 

N 

11 

en 

0     0 

0 

o 

O 

o 

0 

P     p 

P 

]> 

P 

P 

pay 

R    )i 

P 

1- 

R 

r 

cr 

8    r 

s 

S 

8 

s 

es 

T     c 

T 

t 

T 

t 

tay 

FP]> 

P 

1^ 

Til 

til 

thorn 

U    u 

U 

u 

U 

u 

oo 

T^ 

i  vv 

vv    ) 

^ 

F    p 

P 

p 

(  (W)  (w)   f 

wen 

X     X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

ex 

^'  y 

Y 

y 

Y 

y 

ypsilon 

Some  of  the  German  editors  use  ii  for  a?,  Si  for  ie,  e  for  e  derived  from 
i,  o  for  oe,  oe  for  de,  j  for  i  when  a  serai-vowel,  and  v  for  p.  Now  and 
then  k,  q,  v,  z  get  into  the  manuscripts,  mostly  in  foreign  words,  and  uu 
or  u  for  p.     The  Semi-Saxon  has  a  peculiar  character  for  j  (^). 


SOUNDS  OF  LETTERS. 


11.  Abbreviations. — The  most  common  arc  ^  =  and,  -f  =2)£et 
{that),  X  =  oAde  (or),  and  ~  for  an  omitted  m  or  n  ;  as,  l)u=:])am. 

12.  An  Accent  (-^)  is  found  in  Anglo-Saxon  manuscripts, 
.but  in  none  so  regularly  used  .as  to  make  it  an  objective  part  of 
an  Ano-lo-Saxon  text.  It  is  found  oftenest  over  a  long  vowel; 
sometimes  over  a  vowel  of  peculiar  sound,  not  long ;  seldom,  ex- 
cept over  syllables  having  stress  of  voice.  Sometimes  it  seems  to 
mark  nothing  but  stress.  Most  of  the  English  editors  represent 
it  by  an  acute  accent ;  the  Germans  generally  print  Anglo-Saxon 
with  a  circumflex  over  all  single  long  vowels  in  the  stem  of 
words,  and  an  acute  over  the  diphthongs,  as  broder,  frcund.  In 
thjis  book,  to  guide  the  studies  of  beginners,  a  circumflex  is  used 
over  all  long  vowels  and  diphthongs,  and  the  acute  accent  (')  over 
vowels  only  to  denote  stress.     For  accented  consonants,  see  §  19. 

13.  Punctuation. — The  Anglo-Saxons  used  one  dot  (.)  at 
the  end  of  each  clause,  or  each  hemistich  of  a  poem,  and  some- 
times three  dots  (  :• )  at  the  end.  of  a  sentence.  Modern  point- 
ing is  generally  used  in  printed  text. 

14.  Sounds  of  Letters. — Vowels: 

a    like   a  in  far.  i   like   i   in   dim. 

a     "      a    "  fall. 

so     "      a    "   ylad. 

ffi  "  a  "  dare  in  New 
England, 

e     "      e    "   let. 

e  in  the  breakings  (not  diph- 
thongs) ea,  eo,  ea,  eu,  v^cry 
light.  ^ 

u  like  e  in  they. 

Unaccented  vowels  are  like  accented  in  kind,  but  obscure. 

The  conso?iants  have  their  common  English  sounds;  but  note 

c    like    /•,  always. 

ch   "     /Jt,   iu    v-ork-house. 

cp   "     qi(. 

d     "      d  in    do. 

(t     "     th   "    other.,  smooth. 

g     "      y    "    yo,  always. 

\\  very  distinct. 

hp  like  ich  in  Xew  England. 


i 

ce  "    deem. 

o 

0    "    v:holly. 

6 

0    "    holy. 

u 

n    "   full. 

\\ 

00   "   fool. 

y 

I     "    dim,  but  with  the 

lips 

tlu'ust  out  and  rounded. 

(French  u.) 

y 

same  sound  prolonged. 

i 

[=j) 

before  a  vo\\ 

cl, 

like 

y- 

s 

like 

,s   in 

so. 

t 

(C 

t    " 

to. 

1> 

cc 

th  " 

thin. 

V 

u 

v:. 

pl,  j)r,  and  final  p  nearly  close 

the  lips.     (German  w.) 
x  like  Jcs. 


Q  PHONOLOGY.— CLASSES  OF  VOWELS. 

15.  Accent. — The  primary  accent  in  pronunciation  is  on  the 
first  syllable  of  every  Avord :  brod'-er,  brother  ;  un'-clld,  uncouth. 

The  first  syllable  is  mostly  the  root,  or  a  prefix  defining  it :  but  prefixes 
of  verbs  and  particles  are  relational.     See  ^  41,  4. 

Proof  of  accent  comes  from  alliteration,  rhyme,  the  mark  (^  12),  progres- 
sion, and  other  phonetic  changes. 

Exception  1.  Proper  prefixes  in  verbs  and  particles  take  no  primary  accent; 
such  are  k,  an,  and,  a>t,  be,  bi,  cd,  for,  ful,  ge,  geond,  in,  mis,  dct,  of,  ofer,  on, 
or,  to,  })urh,  nn,  under,  pict,  pitter,  ymb,  ymbe :  an-gin'nan,  begin;  aet-gad'ere, 
together;  on-^e-kn  ,  again.     So  some  parasyntheta  ;  onsaeg'ednes,  ^acn^ce. 

(a.)  But  parasyntheta  from  nouns,  pronouns,  or  adjectives,  retain  their  ac- 
cent: and'-sparian<and'sparu,  answer;  in'-peardlice<  in'-peard,  adj.,  in- 
ward;  ed'nipian<  ed'nipe,  renewed.  Such  are  all  verbs  in  and-,  ed-,  or-, 
found  in  Anglo-Saxon  poetry ;  many  adverbs  in  un-,  etc. 

(i.)  Many  editors  print  as  compounds  adverbs  +  verbs,  both  of  which  re- 
tain their  accent.  Such  are  those  with  a'fter,  bi,  big,  efen,  eft,  fore,  forft, 
from,  fram,  hider,  mid,  nicter,  gegn,  gean,  gen,  to,  up,  tt,  pel. 

Exception  2.  The  inseparable  prefixes  k-,  be-(bi-),  for-,  ge-,  are  unaccent- 
ed :   a-lys'-ing,  redemption ;  be-gang',  course.     (Parasyntheta  from  verbs.) 

A  secondary  accent  may  fall  on  the  tone  syllable  of  the  lighter 
part  of  a  compound  or  on  a  suffix :  o'-fer-cum-'-an,  overcome  ^  heof- 
on-steor'-ra,  star  of  heaven  ;  h'^r'end'e,hQaring ;  leas' it9ig\  lying. 

16.  Phonology.  —  Classes  of  Vowels. 
Peimary  Vowels: — a  (guttural),  i  (palatal),  u  (labial). 
Shokt  Vowels  :— a,  a?,  e,  i,  o,  u,  y.  (Open,  a,  ro,  e,  o ;  close,  i,  u,  y.) 
Long  Vowels  :  —  a,  &,  o,  i,  o,  il,  }'• 

Diphthongs  :  —  ea  (ia),  eo  (16),  ic.    (Dialectic,  ai,  ei,  eu,  oe,  6e,  oi.) 
Breakings;  —  (g-sc-roio),  ea  (ia),  eo  (io),  ie,  ea  (ia),  eo  (io),  ie. 
(h-l-r-row),  ea  (ia)<  a,  eo  (io)<  i,  ie. 

a-umlaut.  I-umlaut.  u-umlaiit. 


Umlaut: — from  i,  u, 
to      e,  o. 


a,  u,  oa,  eo,  a,  o,  xi,  ca,  eu,        n,      i, 
c,  y,  y,    y,  Te,  (■,  y,  y,    y.      (o)ea,  eo. 

Progression  : — Precession — 

Descending.  Istteim.         Ascending. 

a-series: — e     i,  u        a,  vo,o       a,  ^,  c         6 
i-series: —  e  i  i  a 

u-series : —  e       o  u  cu,  \i  ca 

Contraction: — from  a  +  a,  ca+a,  ca  +  u,  co-fa,  eo-fe,  oo-|-u, 
(Reduplication,        to  o,  a,  ca,  c6,         c6,  eo, 

^52.)  j^^.Q^^  i'\-n,  u-fa,  u  +  a,  u-fi,  u-f-o,  n  +  6, 

to         eo,        o,         u,         u,         o,         6. 


CLASSES  OF  CONSONANTS. 

Summary  of  Phonetic  Groups. 


A-Gkoup. 
Weaker. 

Stron 

;er. 

I-Geodp. 
Weaker. 

i 

0 

i 

e 

& 

0 

e    y 

e     y 

e.a 

a 

U 

eo 

u       o 

u 

stronger. 

i 


je,  a 


U-Gkoup. 

Weaker.  Stronger. 


Ablaut  ; 


Present. 

Moot  a: — i,  e,  eo. 
"     a: — i,  e,  eo. 
"      i:—      i. 
"     U: —  eo,  H. 
"      a: —  a,  ea. 


y 

eo    ea,  e 

o 

U 

il 

Preterit  Sing. 

Plural. 

Participle. 

a,  a?,  en. 

a,  a;,  e. 

e ;  u,  o. 

a,  a?,  ea. 

u. 

n,  0. 

a. 

i. 

i. 

ea. 

u. 

o. 

o. 

o. 

a. 

17.   Classes  of  Consonants. 


JIuTES  (Explosive). 


Gutturals 

Smooth. 

Surd. 

C 

Middle. 

Sonant. 

(r 

Rough. 
Surd.    Sonant. 
kh         gh 

Spirant. 
Surd,     fonant. 

h 

>'asal. 

Sonant. 

Liquid. 
Sonant 

Palatals. . 

i 

Linguals. 
Dentals. . 

.        t 

d 

th     ail 

s,i)   s,  d 

11 

Labials . . 

•        P 

b 

ph    bh 

f,hp    ?j,  p 

m 

(m) 

Continuous  Conson.vnts. 


Notable  Consonant  Combinations. 

Giittui-al :— el,  en,  or,  cp,  gl,  gn,  gr,  LI,  hn,  lir,  lip.     x  =  cs,  gs,  bs ; 
cg=gg;  ht>ct,  gt. 

Dental :— tr,  tp,  dr,  dp,  l)i-,  ]Dp,  sc,  scr,  si,  sra,  sn,  sp,  spr,  st,  str,  sp. 

Labial :— pi,  pr,  bl,  br,  fl,  fr,  pi,  pr,  mb,  bb. 


Gemination  from  i :— bb  <  bi,  cc  <  ci,  dd  <  di,  bb  <  fi,  eg <gi, 
ll<li,  mm<nii,  nn<ni,  FS<s!. 


1>1,  lit,  ht,  mn,  ntst,  st,  st, 
pd,  cd,  lid,  fn,  ndst,  sd,  sd. 


Assimilation:  —  Ad^  ff,  ss,  ss,  ss,  tl. 
from   d}i,  bf,  ds,  ds,  sr,  td, 

Common  Changes:— d,  f,  g,  g,  h,  li,  r,  r,  t,  t,  p,  p,  p,   x,    x, 
from  d,  b,  i,  li,  g,  c,  s,  1,  d,  d,  g,  li,  u,  gs,  lis. 


8  18.  Indo-European  Voicel  System. 

(a  i         •    u  ai  au 

Parent  Speech  -j       .  .  ^^  ...  ^^^ 

^       a  i  11  o  0 

Sanskrit.  .  .  .  -.       .^^  ^^  ^^  .-^i  au 


Hellenic . 


ct,  r;,  w  t  J>  ^J,  J?,  w  au,  r]v 


a,  e,  o 
Italic ^     J,  "     )       c 


i  )  u\^  ai,  83   )  au,  6  | 

of  o  j  ci,  i,  6  i"  il      J 

a,  c,  6  i  u  oi,  oe,  ti  tl 


a,  1,  u 
Gothic ^  ai,  au 


],  ai       \i,  au 
ei  fi  ? 


Ancrlo-Saxon 


e,  o  ei 

For  short  vowels,  see  Smmnary  of  Phonetic  Groups,  p.  7. 
For  long  vowels,  see  next  table. 


Teutonic  Long  Trowels.     (Short  voicels  unsJdfted.) 

Gothic c  o  ai  au  ei  iu,  tl? 

Old  Saxon  .  .  .  a  u  e             6  i  iu,  ie,  tl 

Friesic e  u  e,  a           a  i  ia,  tl 

Anglo-Saxox  .  ffi  o  a  ca  i  eu,  }%  ^ 

English ce  oo  o,  oa  ca  i  ee,  ou 

Old  Norse  ...  a  u  ei  au  i  io,  }',  ^ 

Old  11.  German  a  no  e,  ei  o,  ou  i  iu,  io,  tl 

German a  u  e,  ei  o,  au  ei  eu,  ie,  au 

19.  Indo-European  Consonant  ISysteui. 

Parent  Speech    k         g         gh          t  d  dh       p       1)  bh 

Sanskrit.  k,kh,k',  9  g,g'    gh,  h      t,  th  d  dh    p,  ph  b  bh 

Hellenic  .  .  .  .     k         y          %           ''  c  ^       -k      ft  (p 

Italic c,q        -       h(g)         t  d  d(f,b)    ])       b  f(l)) 

Goth.  &  A.-S.  h(g)    k(c)       g      lH^^),tt  t  d        f       \^      b 

O.  H.  German  h(g)  k(ch)  g(k)         d  z  t    f  (v,  b)  f  b(p) 

'P.  Speech     n  n  m  r  1         j  s  v 

Sanskrit  .  ri,  ii  n,  ii  m  r  1         j       s,  sh  =  s'(s')       v 

Hellenic  .     y  ;'  f^i  p  \       4,  "■  / 

Italic  .  .  .     n  n  in  r  1         j  s,  r  v 

G.&A.-S.  n(g)      n  in  r  1  i,  j,  g      s(z),  r       u,  v,  p 

.0.  II.  G.  .     n         n  m  r  1  j,  g  s(r)  av 

Grimni's  Laio. 

1.  From  Parent  Speech  to  Anglo-Saxon,  or  from  Anglo-Saxon  to  Old  H. 
German,  or  from  Old  H.  German  to  Parent  Speech. — Change  each  smooth 
mute  to  its  rough,  rough  to  middle,  middle  to  smooth. 

2.  From  Anglo-Saxon  to  Parent  Speech,  or  from  Parent  Speech  to  Old 
II.  German,  or  from  Old  II.  German  to  Anglo-Saxon.  —  Change  each 
smooth  mute  to  its  middle,  middle  to  rough,  rough  to  smooth. 


CHANGES  OP  SOUND.  9 

20.  Changes  of  Sound. 
I.  Variation  :   exchange  of  one  sound  with  another. 

1.  Evphonic:  through  the  influence  of  other  sounds  in 

the  same  word  or  phrase : 

(a)  Qualitative :  through  influence  of  the  kind  of  .     .^     . 

sound  which  follows  or  precedes.     .     .     .     .'{  . 

^  s  ^,  n         1  .1         1    •  /a  e  ■  ^ Dissimilation. 

(a)  Change  of  vowel  tlirough  influence  ot  z, 

w,  or  a  in  the  following  syllable     .     .     .    Umlaut. 

(i)  Change  of  vowel  through  influence  of  con- 
sonants   Breaking. 

(c)  Change   of  consonant  through  influence 

of  z,  y Assibilation. 

(c/)  Change  of  consonant  through  influence 
of  other  consonants. 

(b)  Quantitative :    through   the   weight   of  sound 

which  follows  or  precedes Compensation. 

(a)  Change  of  quantity  or  quality. 
(6)  Change  of  accent. 

2.  Accentual:  through  influence  of  accent Gravitation. 

(a)  Strengthening  accented  syllables  in  a  certain 

way Progression. 

(b)  Weakening  unaccented  syllables Precession. 

Here  also  may  be  placed  as  appendix. 
Changes  in  root  vowels  which,  in  the  Teutonic 
languages,  have  come  to  distinguish  tenses  of 
the  verb Ablaut. 

3.  Mimetic:  through  influence  of  other  like  words: 

(a)  Conforming  to  other  words,  in  declension,  con- 

jugation, etc Conformation. 

(b)  Simulating  etymological  relations Simulation. 

(c)  Sundering,  bifurcation,  dimorphism. 

4.  Etymologic  ■    uninfluenced  by  other   sounds   in   the 

same  language  .....     LautcerscJiiebunf/.   Shifting. 

II.  Figur.vtion:    cliangc  of  form  without  change  of  sense,  by  dropping,  add- 
ing, or  changing  the  order  of  sounds. 

1.  Dropping: Apothesis. 

(a)  Beginning  a  word Aphaeresis. 

(b)  Ending Apocope. 

(c)  Witiiin : 

(a)  Vowel  before  a  vov.-cl Elision. 

(h)  Vowel  before  a  consonant Syncope. 

(<■)  Consonant  or  .syllable Ecthlipsis. 

2.  Adding: Prosthesis. 

(a)  Beginning  a  ^rol■d Prothesic. 

(b)  Ending J\iragor/c.  Epitliesi.s. 

(c)  Within Epenthesis. 

.",.   ChaiKjing  the.  order  of  letters Metathesis. 


10  LAWS  OF  LETTER  CHANGE. 

IIL  CoNTKACTio.N :    ilnvwiiig  together  vowel  sounds  to  avoid  tlic  hiatus. 

1.  Complete: 

(a)  Within  a  word Synaeresis. 

(b)  Between  words Crasis. 

2.  IncoDijiktc:   a  pai'tial  rhythmic  union,  so  that  the  two 

vowels  serve  as  one  syllable  in  poetry : 

(a)  Within  a  word Synizesis. 

(b)  Between  words Syualcspha. 

Laws  of  Letter  Change. 

1.  A  vowel  may  assimilate  a  vowel  by  umlaut.     §  32. 

2.  A  vowel  may  change  to  its  breaking  before  Z,  r,  A,  or  p, 

;;?.,  y,  and  after  c  (sc),  g,  or  p.     §  33. 

3.  Between  two  vowels  a  surd  may  change  to  a  sonant  or  a 

mute  to  a  continuous.     §  35,  3. 

4.  If  a  surd  follows  a  sonant,  gemination  of  the  surd  is 

produced.     §  35,  A. 

5.  If  a  surd  precedes  a  sonant,  the  sonant  is  changed  to  a 

surd  of  the  same  organ.     §  35,  J3. 
G.  A  mute  before  another  consonant  may  change  to  a  con- 
tinuous of  the  same  organ.     §  35,  4,  b. 

7.  Before  oi  a  surd  or  mide  may  change  to  its  cognate  nasal. 

§  35,  4,  c. 

8.  A  vowel  may  change  to  a  consonant  of  the  same  organ 

to  avoid  the  hiatus.     §  36. 

9.  Between   two   vowels   a    continuous    may  change  to   a 

mute.     §  36,  2. 

10.  One  of  tw^o  contiguous  mutes  may  change  to  a  continu- 

ous, one  of  two  continuous  to  a  mute.    §  36,  3,  4. 

11.  A  consonant   may  be   dropped   and  the   preceding  vowel 

lengthened  by  compensation.     §  37. 

12.  A  vowel  may  be   dropped   and  the  preceding   consonant 

doubled  by  compensation.     §  37,  2. 

13.  Gemination,  when  final  or  next  to  a  consonant,  is  simpli- 

fied or  dissimilated.     §  27,  5. 

14.  Apothesis  is  found  of  a  syllable  of  inflection,  and  of  an 

unaccented  stem  vowel  final ;  before  a  vowel ;  before  /,  n, 
r ;  c?,  f/,  st ;  c,  g,  m,  p,  and  other  consonants.     §  44-46. 

15.  Ecthlipsis  is  found  of  d,  d,  s,  s^,  before  &t ;  of  n  before  d, 

/,  s  ;   of  c7,  r/,  /-,  /,  7>,  mostly  between  vowels  or  before  a 
liquid.     §  47. 


VOICE— SHORT  VOWELS.  H 

16.  Epithesis,  epenthesis,  aud  metathesis  are  used  for 

euphony.     §  49-61. 

17.  Synaeresis  may  occur  after  ecthlipsis  of  </  or  //,  or  the 

change  ofp  to  ^l.     §  52. 


21.  Every  classic  speech  is  an  ideal ;  the  folks  at  home  do  not 
speak  it.  We  have  no  direct  description  of  the  pronunciation  of 
Anglo-Saxon  ;  but  we  have  Greek  text  written  phonetically  with 
Anglo-Saxon  characters  (Hickes,  Pref ,  xii.-f ),  and  know  that  they 
were  sounded  nearly  like  the  corresponding  letters  in  the  Latin 
of  the  missionaries.  These  characters  represent  only  the  most 
striking  varieties  of  sound,  and  those  vaguely.  There  must  have 
been  very  great  diversity  in  the  folkspeech.  The  view  given  in 
§  14  is  general  or  ideal,  as  seems  suited  to  a  practical  manual. 
An  examination  of  the  laws  of  the  language,  and  its  relations  to 
other  languages,  Avill  suggest  further  remarks. 

22.  Voice. — Breath  is  made  sonant  by  vibrations  of  the  vocal 
chords — ligaments  which  may  be  stretched  across  the  Avind-pipe. 
The  quality  of  a  vowel  depends  on  the  general  shape  of  the  cav- 
ity containing  the  vibrating  column  of  air.  For  a,  the  tongue  lies 
flat ;  for  i,  we  breathe  or  blow  into  a  narrow-necked  bottle ;  for 
u,  into  a  bottle  without  a  neck. 

23.  Short  Vowels. — The  simple  vowels  are  «,  i,  ti.  Pure  a 
may  be  gradually  changed  to  2,  if  the  tongue  be  slowly  raised  to- 
ward the  palate ;  to  u,  if  the  lips  be  slowly  closed.  Between  a 
and  i  are  .-c,  e;  between  a  and  u  is  o ;  between  i  and  u  is  y. 
The  vowel  sounds  shade  into  each  other  like  colors. 

In  any  word  or  stem  the  same  short  vowel  is  found  in  all  the 
Teutonic  tongues,  and  any  changes  are  explained  by  umlaut, 
breaking,  or  other  phonetic  laws  working  within  the  language. 

a,  ae. — In  Anglo-Saxon  a  is  found  before  a  single  consonant 
followed  by  a,  o,  ii^  <3<«/  before  m,  w,  and  in  some  foreign  words. 
Before  m,  5i,  it  also  suffers  assimilation  to  o:  man^mon;  before 
a  consonant  combination  beginning  Avith  /,  r,  h^  it  breaks  to  ea : 
sealm,  psalm  ;  before  a  syllable  containing  i  or  e  <  i,  i-umlaut 
changes  it  to  c:  hladan  /de{de)si,  to  load;  u-umlaut  changes  it 
to  ea :  bealu,  bale ;  in  other  situations,  words  having  a  in  other 
languages  show  a  regular  shifting  of  «  to  a?/  thus,  in  monosyl- 
lables ending  in  a  single  consonant:  Ja?c,  back;  in  polysyllables 
before  a  single  consonant  followed  by  c:  hwcere,  baker;  before 


12  LONG  VOWELS. 

consonant  combinations,  especially  those  beginning  with  f  or  a  : 
cnx'/f,  craft.  In  the  folkspeccli  the  sound  of  «  must  have  varied 
through  the  shades  of  sound  from  a  in  father  nearly  to  a  in  /lai 
on  the  one  side,  and  to  o  in  hot  on  the  other.  Accented  a  often 
changes  in  English  to  the  sound  of  a  in  name,  through  progres- 
sion, i-umlaut,  or  shifting  :  tnacian  >  inaken  >  make. 

e. — This  is  i-umlaut  of  «.-  ?«»««??,  tame  ;  a-umlaut  of  ^ .■  help- 
«?i<root  hiJp,  help;  or  a  light  toneless  sound  which  may  be  the 
ghost  of  any  sound  out  of  which  the  blood  has  ebbed  through 
gravitation  :  gife,  Gothic  gihds,  gibdi,  giba,  gift.  The  same  word 
is  sometimes  written  with  x  and  e,  or  ea  and  e:  dseg^  cleg,  day; 
seah,  seh,  saw.  In  the  folkspecch  the  sounds  varied  from  nearly 
a  drawling  cul  (as  in  adrth,  earth),  through  e  in  met,  to  the  light 
sound  of  German  final  e,  French  mute  e. 

i. — This  simple  sound  holds  its  ground  well ;  but  a-umlaut 
sometimes  changes  it  to  e :  pyfed,  weaves,  pi.  pefad;  u-umlaut 
and  breaking  both  change  it  to  eo :  lini,  limb,  pi.  leomu ;  feoJite, 
fight.  It  exchanges  in  writing  with  y,  and  sometimes  with  ea : 
miht,  myJit,  meaht,  might.  Perhaps  an  a-element  was  in  some 
words  creeping  in,  as  in  English  long  i  {  —  d+i),  cniht,  Northum- 
brian cnaiJit,  kniglit. 

O. — This  is  treated  as  n-umlaut  of  a.  or  a-umlaut  of  n,  or  an 
assimilation  of  a  by  m  or  n:  roclor,  Old  Saxon  radur,  heaven; 
crn'on,  eo7'en  <  coran,  chose,  chosen  ;  comh,  comb.  In  folkspeech 
it  varied  from  o  in  oiot  to  nearly  u  in  full. 

U,  y. — Like  i,  u  holds  its  ground.  It  changes  in  writing  with 
o  on  one  side,  and  y  on  the  other ;  and  probably  varied  in  folk- 
speech  from  u  in  nut  to  nearly  the  French  n.  y  is  i-umlaut  of  n 
and  ea,  sometimes  u-umlaut  of  i,  exchanging  with  eo.  It  was  a 
favorite  letter  with  the  penmen,  and  is  often  found  for  ?,  and 
sometimes  for  e,  w :  cyiimg,  king;  eald,  yldest,  old,  oldest; 
ceorl  >  eyrllsc,  churlish  ;  lyden,  leden,  Latin  ;  gyst-sele,  gvest-sele, 
guest-hnl!. 

24.  Long  Vowels. — T\vo  like  short  vowels  uttered  as  one 
sound  make  a  long  vowel :  aa  =  a,  ii  =  i,  uu  =  tl. 

Long  vowels  are  produced  by  compensation,  progression,  and 
contraction. 

A  long  sound  is,  however,  different  in  quality  as  well  as  quantity  from 
its  short.  The  anticipation  of  the  double  utterance  affects  the  position  ol" 
the  organs.  A  given  long  vowel  may,  in  fact,  arise  from  the  coming  togetli- 
cr  of  unlike  vowels:  Tiiuofiev  from  riiidojuv;  nor  do  two  like  vowels  alvva3's 


LONG  VOWELS.  13 

give  their  long  :  Greek  «  give  ft,  oo  give  ov.  The  Anglo-Saxon  long  vow- 
els vary  in  kind  (quality)  from  their  short ;  a  prolonged  is  not  exactly  a,  nor 
e  prolonged  exactly  e.  We  give  the  long  mark,  therefore,  whenever  the 
quality  of  sound  is  that  of  the  long  letter,  though  the  vowel  may  be  unaccent- 
ed, and  the  sound  obscure. 

Proof  of  length  is  found  in  accent  (§  12)  and  gemination  in  the 
manuscripts  ;  presumptive  evidence  is  also  found  in  tlie  origin 
and  relations  of  vowels,  and  tlie  analogy  of  other  languages. 

That  a  letter  is  not  accented  is  no  proof  that  it  is  not  long ;  but  when  one 
is  abundantly  marked  in  good  manuscripts,  it  must  be  held  long.  The  pro- 
nouns me,  ]3e,  he  are  abundantly  marked,  and  therefore  we  give  them  as 
long,  though  analogy  is  perhaps  against  it.  These  words,  however  alliterate 
in  poetry,  fall  in  with  a  general  law  as  to  accented  open  syllables  which  has 
a  plain  physiological  basis,  and  the  corresponding  words  are  long  in  English, 
and  were  long  in  Latin. 

'^  Monosyllables  ending  in  a  vowel  are  long,  except  enclitics  and 
proclitics,  which  are  really  affixes  or  prefixes  to  other  words. 

a  corresponds  in  part  to  Gothic  ^,  in  part  to  Gothic  di,  and 
has  oftenest  passed  into  English  6 :  Gothic  hdim-,  Anglo-Saxon 
hdm^  home,  Gei-m.  hcim;  in  pa,  a,  etc.,  it  is  progression  of  a.  It 
varied  through  a  in  fa);  loall,  Ger.  mahnen,  nearly  to  6  in  home. 

26  corresponds  to  the  same  Gothic  letters  as  d,  but  comes  into 
English  with  the  sonud  of  ee :  Gothic  sdi-,  Anglo-Saxon  sie,  sea, 
German  see.  It  is  i-umlaut  of  d,  and  simple  shifting  also,  which 
may  be  stopped  by  a  following  m,  n :  hdte,  hwt{e)st,  hait{€ci),  call, 
callest,  calleth. 

e  is  i-uralaut  of  6 :  fdt,  fet(e),  foot,  feet ;  simple  shifting  of 
edyta:  heran,  hear.  It  springs  also  from  contraction  of  old  re- 
duplications, from  lengthening  of  open  monosyllables :  me,  me  ; 
he,  he;  pe,  thee;  and  from  compensation:  pewCpcgn,  thane: 
perhaps  here  also  gS<ige);  ye;  pe<.pec,  thee;  and  other  such 
pronouns.  It  likes  m  or  n  after  it,  and  in  such  cases  may  stand 
for  an  original  a  or  ih.  It  varied  in  folkspeech  from  nearly  e  in 
there  to  ey  in  thej/,  with  the  final  y-sound  {ee)  pretty  plain.  It 
goes  over  to  ee  completely  in  English.     (Progression.) 

i  corresponds  to  the  i  of  other  languages.  It  has  risen  in 
English  under  the  accent  to  the  sound  oi  d  +  i  (§  38,  1):  hitan, 
bite ;  dnfan,  drive.  It  exchanges  in  the  writing  with  i),  and 
must  have  sounded  much  like  it. 

6  corresponds  to  Gothic  6.  It  springs  from  contraction  of 
three  «- elements,  or  two   «- elements    and    a   ?<- element:  /u- 


14-  DirilTIIONGS.— NORTHUMBRIAN  VOWELS. 

/<a;i >/J;i,  catcli ;  gefeohan^f/efedti, rejoice;  from  progression: 
muna,  Old  II.  German  'mdno,  moon  ;  sona.  Mid.  II.  German  sd?i, 
soon.  It  liad  the  sound  of  o  in  tone,  with  a  tendency  in  a  labial 
direction,  which  has  brought  it  to  English  oo.     §  38, 1. 

U  corresponds  to  'd  in  other  dialects.  It  is  often  strengthened 
from  u.  under  the  accent:  ]nt,  thou;  ?^^?,  now;  sometimes  springs 
from  compensation :  m'dd,  Gothic  mwips,  mouth.  It  changes  in 
English  under  the  accent  to  oti :  hits,  house.     (Progression.) 

y  is  i-unilaut  of?"?,  of  ed,  and  ofed:  m€is,  mi)s(e),  mouse,  mice; 
l()gG  <  root  leug^  lie  ;  hf/r{i)a7i  <  root  hear,  hear.     §  38, 1. 

25,  Diphthongs. — Two  unlike  vowels  heard  in  one  syllabic 
make  a  diphthong.  The  forms  ea  (ia),  eo  {io),  ie,  are  generally 
called  breakings ;  ed,  id,  ed,  id,  ie,  are  often  true  diphthongs,  and 
then  they  differ  etymologically  from  breakings.  For  Breakings, 
see  §  33. 

ea,  ia  =  Gothic  dii  >  (t"  >  'c?  >  ed.  It  is  found  in  many  po-'' 
sitions:  final;  before  r,  h,  m,  n, p :  fred,  lord;  tedr,  tear;  hedh, 
high ;  dream,  dream  ;  ledn,  loan ;  hredp,  brow.  It  is  also  found 
as  a  <7-.sc-breaking  of  d :  gedfon,  gave ;  scedn,  shone.  It  is  an 
unstable  combination,  tending  to  a  >  English  d  or  to  ^  >  English 
ec,  as  more  or  less  of  the  e-sound  works  in.  The  prevailing  set  is, 
on  the  whole,  to  e:  stedp,  ste2>VLr\,  steep. 

eo,  io  =  Gothic  in.  It  is  also  an  assimilation  of  i,  %,  by  p  or 
I:  tredp,  Gothic  triva,  tree ;  fedl.  Old  H.  German  fUa,  mud ;  aj)- 
parently  also  by  Ji,  g ;  but  in  these  cases  a  change  of  h,  g,  top 
may  be  supposed:  Jnhan'^pedn,  depart;  frig,  fred,  free.  It  is 
a  peculiar  progression  from  i  final  (perhaps  here  also  a  labial 
sound  is  to  be  added) :  bed,  Old  H.  German  ht,  bee.  It  often 
also  springs  from  contraction,  especially  of  the  reduplication,  ex- 
changing with  (}.  It  exchanges  in  writing  with  id.  It  is  found 
often  for  ed.  It  changes  to  iX :  siXpan,  sup ;  siXcan,  suck.  It 
must  have  had  a  peculiar  sound  or  sounds — an  unstable  combi- 
nation, tending  to  it,  >  English  u  in  sup  on  the  one  side,  and  to 
^>  English  ee  on  the  other.  The  prevailing  set  is,  on  the  whole, 
to  i.  A  similar  sound  is  produced  by  ^/-sc-breaking  from  d:  seed, 
shoe ;  but  the  e  is  lighter. 

ie  is  used  for  ed,  ed. 

2G.  Northumbrian  Vowels.— a  is  often  used  where  An- 
glo-Saxon has  ea,  sometimes  where  it  has  e,  i,  eo,  ii. 

SB  interchanges  with  ea:  ml,  eall,  all,  all ;  vr  for  e  is  abundant; 
e  for  sa  frequent ;  oe  for  e  frequent.    Assimilation  of  loo  <  v)e. 


CONSONANTS.  15 

KU  <  w^,  is  found  :  teosa,  Anglo-Saxon  pesan,  to  be ;  zoictta,  Ai\- 
gloSaxon pita7i,  to  know;  also  ^il<iil:  si<{/*,  Anglo-Saxon  siJf, 
self;  sulfer^  Anglo-Saxon  seolfor,  Gothic  siluhr^  silver. 

a  is  often  ■written  «ay  it  exchanges  with  fc/  is  a  progression 
of  «,  eff,  before  liquids.  ^  is  found  written  aae.  e  is  seldom 
i-umlaut  of  o,  is  used  sometimes  for  c6  (lautA'erschiebung),  oft- 
ener  for  cC,  Gothic  c,  oftenest  for  ed.  6e  is  i-umlaut  of  o,  or 
rei^resents  Anglo-Saxon  e  not  umlaut. 

ea  interchanges  Avith  co,  a  favorite  sound  which  displaces 
sometimes  Anglo-Saxon  e,  i.  ea  interchanges  with  eo.  io  for 
eo  is  frequent ;  ea  for  te.  There  are  found  ai  for  «',  ei  for  e  or 
.•e,  eu  for  ec/p,  and  o/. 

27.  Consonants. — The  stream  of  breath  is  stopped  in  speech 
in  three  main  ways :  by  contact  betAveen  the  root  of  the  tongue 
and  the  palate  (a  round  surface  against  a  hollow  one),  the  tip  of 
the  tongue  and  the  teeth  (a  shari?  against  a  flat  surface),  and  the 
upper  and  lower  lips  (two  flat  surfaces).  If  a  sonant  breath  be 
stopped,  the  sonant  letters,  g  guttural,  d  dental,  h  labial,  are  j^ro- 
duced.  If  we  blow  instead  of  breathe,  a  slight  change  is  made 
throughout  the  vocal  organs  :  viz.,  the  glottis  is  thrown  open,  the 
chords  no  longer  sound,  and  the  shape  which  the  organs  take  at 
the  places  where  they  meet  and  i:>art  is  varied  :  hence  the  smooth, 
surd  letters,  c{k)  guttural,  t  dental,  7;  labial.  These  are  mutes. 
If  the  breath  be  not  wholly  stopped,  contumoiis  letters,  i  guttu- 
ral (palatal),  (t  and  English  Z  dental,  (English  v)  and  j?  labial,  are 
made;  or,  if  the  stream  be  blown,  h  guttural,  ^J,  «,  dental,/,  ///?, 
labial.  If,  when  the  breath  is  stopped,  the  veil  be  raised  which 
separates  the  nose  from  the  pharynx,  the  resonance  of  the  nasal 
cavity  gives  n  in  ng  guttural,  71  dental,  m  labial ;  I  and  r  are 
trills.  Each  consonant  stands  for  two  sounds:  viz.,  the  closing 
of  the  organs,  aj)/  and  the  opening  of  the  organs,  ^;ff.  For  a 
fourth  kind  of  stop,  see  Assibilation,  §  34. 

1.  A  stop  of  the  first  kind,  which  will  pass  for  a  (/,  may  be  made  any 
where  from  the  very  root  of  the  tongue  forward  to  the  middle  of  the  mouth. 
Some  nations  make  their  r/  in  one  place,  some  in  another.  Further  for- 
ward it  becomes  impossible  to  stop  with  a  humped  tongue,  and  the  tip  comes 
into  play.  This  may  be  touched,  so  as  to  make  a  d,  any  where  from  the 
front  17-stop,  or  even  further  back,  to  the  meeting  of  the  teeth.  Just  where 
f/  and  d  run  into  each  other  is  i  consonant  (English  ?/).  Some  tribes  count 
gutturals  and  dentals  as  all  one.  The  Sandwich  Islanders  have  to  be  taught 
to  tell  c  from  t,  and  possibly  the  Koniari  populace  may  have  had  a  similar 
habit.     See  Assibilation,  §  31. 


16  GUTTURALS. 

2.  h,J),  (t,fy  arc  pronounced  as  spirants,  but  arc,  historically,  representa- 
tives of  c/j,  til,  dh,  ph,  winch  were  once  pronounced  as  separate  letters  (c. 
g.,  ch  as  kh  in  ivor/i-housc),  and  hence  are  called  rough  or  aspirate  mutes, 
a  name  retained  in  historical  grammar  bv  their  representatives.     See  Table, 

3.  r  is  described  as  a  trill  of  the  uvula  in  the  Northumberland  burr,  and 
of  the  tip  of  tiie  tongue  in  English  and  German  ;  /  as  a  trill  of  the  side 
edges  of  the  tongue  No  trill  is  heard  in  English  in  America.  In  r  the  tip 
of  the  tongue  is  raised  and  moved  slightly  while  the  breath  is  poured  over 
it.  In  I  the  tip  is  raised  to  the  dental  stop,  and  the  breath  issues  freely  be- 
tween its  sides  and  tlie  cheeks. 

4.  Gemination  is  the  doubling  of  a  consonant.  Physiologically  it  arises 
from  an  analysis  of  a  consonant  by  which  the  sound  made  in  closing  the  stop 
is  united  with  the  foregoing  vowel,  and  tiiat  made  by  opening  is  united  with 
the  following  vowel.  Or  it  arises  from  combining  two  complete  consonants, 
i.  e.,  shutting  and  opening  the  organs  twice  :  bac/<:-/iitchen.  The  last  is  sel- 
dom heard  in  English.  Historically  it  springs  from  gravitation  (^  38)  or  as- 
similation (^  35).  It  is  most  common  with  liquids  and  s.  A  real  gemination 
can  not  occur  at  the  beginning  or  the  end  of  a  word,  nor  before  a  second 
mute,  nor  is  it  easy  after  a  long  vowel.  For  the  orthographic  rule  in  Anglo- 
Saxon,  see  ^  20,  Rule  13.     Double  o-is  written  eg,  double/,  bb. 

5.  Dissimilated  Gemmation. — When  gemination  of  a  nasal  {m,  n)  woul  i 
occur  before  I  or  r,  the  trill  calls  for  so  much  breath  that  we  drop  the  nasal 
veil,  and  that  changes  the  latter  half  of  in  into  i,  of  n  into  d.  In  some 
other  cases  a  continuous  consonant  or  vowel  is  dissimilated  for  force  of  utter- 
ance :  ss'^st,  mni^mp,  nn'^nt,  iyig,  u  or  p'^np,  are  found ;  spindcl 
<C.spinl ;  timber<^timr,  Goth,  titnrjan.     ^^28,36,81. 

28.  Gutturals  {Palatals) :  c,  g,  A,  i,  n.  c  has  given  place  in 
English  before  c,  ?',  y,  to  h  (a  graphic  change  merely)  or  to  ch 
(Assibilation,  §  34).  This  ch  appears  in  hite  manuscripts,  and  the 
assibilation  was  doubtless  begun  in  the  folkspeech  earlier;  but 
the  new  sound  does  not  show  in  the  alliteration,  and  should  not 
be  given  for  Anglo-Saxon  c.  The  assibilation  of  sc>Englisli  sA, 
is  excluded  for  similar  reasons,  cty  ht,  §  3G  ;  ciycc,  §  37; 
cg-cjg,  §  37;   fic  =  x,  §  51. 

g  conies  into  English  as  g  in  go,  give ;  as  clg  in  edge  (Assibi- 
lation, §  84) ;  as  y  in  youth.  It  stands  in  the  place  of  J  (z=:  En- 
glish y)  of  other  languages  in  three  i^laces:  (1.)  Beginning  the  fol- 
lowing words:  ge,  ye;  gear,  gei\  year;  gedra,  yore;  geuc,  yoke; 
geogud,  youth  ;  geol,  yule ;  geond,  yond  ;  geovg,  young ;  gesc, 
yes  ;  gist,  yeast ;  git,  yet.  Compare  Sanskrit  juvan,  Latin  jm-c- 
nis,  Gothic  jugg,  German  jimg,  Norse  ilvgr,  Anglo-Saxon  geong, 
iioig,  English  young. 


DENTALS.  17 

(2.)  "Within  words  in  the  place  of  i  (=J)  before  a  vowel  in  in- 
flection :  nerian  =  nergan,  to  save ;  inserted :  lujie  =  lufige^  love ; 
ge  inserted :  eardian  =  eardigecm,  to  till. 

(3.)  Final  for  i:  hu:=hig,  they. 

All  these  changes  seem  natural  if  g  in  these  words  be  pronounced  as  the 
English  y.  it  is  certain  that  these  words  were  at  all  times  often  so  pro- 
nounced :  we  find  mng  in  Anglo-Saxon  as  well  as  geong,  nerian  as  well  as 
ncrgan.  But  words  like  geong  alliterate  abundantly  in  Anglo-Saxon  poe- 
try with  words  beginning  with  g  hard,  and  not  with  other  kinds  of  words  be- 
ginning with  io,  ia,  or  another  vowel ;  while  in  Norse  the  words  beginning 
with  i,  J,  alliterate  only  with  vowels.  It  seems  certain,  therefore,  that  this 
ge  sounded  more  like  a  hard  g  than  like  e  or  i  before  a  vowel,  which  was 
nearly  the  English  y.  It  is  better  to  accept  the  fact  that  a  guttural  breath- 
ing was  inserted  between  the  vowels  of  liijie  by  those  who  wrote  lufige,  than 
to  soften  out  the  g  to  try  to  simplify  the  phonology ;  g  and  j  run  into  each 
other.  Words  in  g  hard  in  Anglo-Saxon  run  mto  y  in  Old  English,  and  re- 
turn to  g  in  English  :  forgitan,  foryeten,  forget ;  gifan,  yeven,  give  ;  geat, 
ya(e,  gate,  etc.  These  are  dialectical  variations,  but  real  differences  of 
sound.     In  Anglo-Saxon  g  had  such  sounds  as  in  modern  German. 

h  represents  the  guttural  rough  (ch)  and  the  simple  breathing. 
They  were  both  in  the  folkspeech  originally ;  both  are  now  given 
in  the  dialects  of  England.  The  guttural  is  not,  however,  recog- 
nized as  separate  in  alliteration  or  otherwise  in  the  literature  of 
the  Anglo-Saxons  any  more  than  in  the  English,  and  may  be  omit- 
ted from  the  literary,  though  not  from  the  comparative  grammar 
of  both.  It  is  sounded  in  initial  hi,  /m,  hr.  hyg,  h yp,  §  35, 
3  ;  h<,g,%35,4:,b;  ht  <  ct,  §  36,  3  ;  h  dropped,  Apocope,  §  44  ; 
Ecthlipsis,  §  47.    x  producing  breaking  =  lis. 

i  consonant  goes  into  </,  from  the  most  forward  utterances  of 
Avhich  it  is  distinguished  by  being  not  so  tight  a  stop.  It  is  found 
sometimes,  especially  in  foreign  proper  names,  alliterating  with  g, 
and  should  then  be  pronounced  like  g. 

n  in  nc,  ng  (Goth.  Greek  gg),  is  the  English  guttural  nasal. 

29.  Dentals  {Linguals) :  t,  d,  p,  (t,  s,  I,  r,  n.  t<dd,  §  3G, 
5  ;    <  t(t,  §  35,  JS;   st  <  sd;   t  <  r?.  Assimilation,  §  35. 

d  for  d  between  two  vowels  seems  to  indicate  a  disinclination 
to  begin  a  syllable  Avith  d:  ld<ld;  dd<idi,  §  37:  d  and  p  are 
not  uniformly  used  in  any  of  the  manuscripts;  there  Avere  cer- 
tainly two  sounds,  as  in  English.  The  uniform  use  oip  beginning 
words  and  d  elsewhere  is  calligraphic,  not  orthographic.  The 
real  sounds  may  yet  be  made  out;  compare  §§  194,  a;  41,  (3). 
English  surds  indicate  A.-Sax.  surds,  unless  they  spring  from  other 

B 


18  LABIALS.— NORTHUMBRIAN  CONSONANTS. 

dialects  tliaii  those  wliicli  had  most  influenced  the  Anglo-Saxon. 
Assimihition  by  /,  §  35  ;  breaking  by  /,  r,  §  32, 

r<5,  §  41 ;  apocope  of?*,  §  44;  metathesis  of  r,  §  51. 

S  and  z  undistinguished,  but  see  §  189,  h.     n,  Ecthlipsis,  §  47. 

30.  Labials  :  2),  b,  f,  p,  m.  p  begins  only  words  of  foreign 
origin,  b  changes  to /'in  tlie  middle  and  end  of  words,  except 
nib  and  bh  <  bi.  The  Old  Saxon,  Friesic,  and  Norse  have  the 
same  tendency  to  change  the  middle  mute  labial  b  to  the  contin- 
uous/'in  the  middle  of  words,  i.  c.,  not  to  close  the  mouth  tight- 
ly between  two  vowels.  The  Old  Saxon  and  Friesic  have  both 
surd  and  sonant  continuous  forms,/  and  English  v.  This  Anglo- 
Saxon /"is  written  u  {v)  sometimes  {Jdiuade,  B.,  1799),  and  it  has 
changed  in  English  to  v :  heauod,  hea/od,  head ;  heofon,  heaven  ; 
pulf,  pulfds,  Avolf,  wolves.  The  folkspcech  had  a  sonant  contin- 
xious  labial,  and  it  may  be  distinguished  in  the  weak  verbs.  See 
§  189,  b.  The  runic p  is  like  the  English  w,  but  must  have  varied 
in  the  dialects  as  it  does  now  in  England.  In  initial/)/, pr  (often 
parasitic),  and  at  the  end  of  words,  it  must  have  been  spoken 
with  a  nearer  approach  to  closing  the  mouth.  Bede  represents  it 
in  Latin  by  vu,  thS  Normans  by  gu  ;  the  parasitic  v,  g  plainly  in- 
dicate a  vigorous  utterance.  It  clianges  to  w  when  final  and  pre- 
ceded by  a  consonant :  bealu,  genitive  becdpes,  bale.  Latin  u  and 
V  were  the  same  letter ;  the  present  separation  of  them  was  com- 
pleted only  in  the  18th  century,  w  is  of  German  origin  ;  it  had 
come  into  common  use  in  Semi-Saxon.  Assimilation  of  p  and  m^ 
§35,2;  mm  <  mi,%  37,  2, 

31.  Northumbrian  Consonants: 

(1.)  Gutturals.  —  c  and  g  interchange:  finger, fincer,  finger; 
dringes,  he  drinks;  cc  and  p:  getreuad  t=l  getryccad ;  c  y  h, 
c'^ch,  see  h.  g  assimilates  a  preceding  e  or  e  to  ei:  deign, 
Anglo-Saxon  peg^i,  thane  ;  xcelg,  Anglo-Saxon  peg,  way ;  in  such 
cases  there  may  be  ecthlipsis  of  g :  maiden,  Anglo-Saxon  mveg- 
den,  maiden  ;  or  ^  >  Ji :  fifteih,  Anglo-Saxon  fiftig,  fifty  ;  g  <ip  : 
dnga,  Anglo-Saxon  pripa,  three  ;  g  and  i  consonant  have  the 
same  relations  as  in  Anglo-Saxon,  h. — Prothesis  of  h  is  found 
in  hecdd,  old,  etc. ;  often  before  /  and  r :  hlddia,  to  lead ;  hroue, 
row;  apothcsis  in  /(//e,  Anglo-Saxon  hlaf,\o^f,  etc.  Ecthlipsis 
between  vowels  is  the  rule,  and  occurs  elsewhere,  c  >  A  and 
g^  h,  with  a  change  of  the  h  to  ch,  are  common  at  the  end  of 
words  :  Anglo-Saxon  mec  >  meh,  mec/i,  me ;  occasional  Avithin 
words:  micil,  mihil,  m.ichil,  much.    Beda  uses  ct  for  ht. 


EUPHONIC  CHANGES.— UMLAUT.  19 

(2.)  Dentals. — t  for  d  is  found:  Jieafot,  head;  apocope  in 
second  singular  of  verbs :  slvopes  diX,  sleepst  thou.  Apocope  of 
d  is  common  :  hxlen  <  hrvlend,  savior ;  assimilation  of  Id:  ma- 
nigfcdUce,  manifold.  There  is  no  p ;  d  and  d  interchange: 
dagds^  dagds^  days  ;  hrodor,  hr6doi\  brother.  Ecthlipsis  of  d 
occurs  Avhen  the  pronoun  dii^  thou,  agglutinates  with  its  verb: 
spreccstu  for  ^precest  dil,  thou  speakest.  d  final  changes  to  5.- 
ci(oedas<.ciioedad,ihQj  &^Y.  dyz:  5e.tere, baptist.  Liquids. — 
Apocope  of  n  is  the  rule  in  the  infinitive,  and  frequent  elsewhere; 
ecthlipsis  before  d,  f,  s,  as  in  Anglo-Saxon.  Metathesis  of  r  is 
more  common  than  in  Anglo-Saxon;  ecthlipsis  occurs  in  bg- 
gen  <  hyrgen,  tomb ;  cpenthesis  in  efern,  evening,  and  its  com- 
pounds.    Metathesis  of  1  and  of  n  occurs,     s  <  d,  see  over. 

(3.)  Labials.  —  b  suffers  apocope:  (?»;;?,  dumb,  etc. ;  J  </.' 
feber,  Anglo-Saxon  fefoj\  fever,  f  >  w  and  uh :  diozd,  dioifbol, 
Anglo-Saxon  deofol,  devil,  Avhere  m  is  perhaps  English  v.  For 
p  are  written  it,  nu,  xo.  Initial  p  before  it,  and  sometimes  oe,  is 
left  unwritten  :  ?^(/*z=  rmT/*,  wolf;  oeg  =woeg,  v,'aj.  Prothesis  is 
found  :  tcoxo,  ox  ;  and  epenthesis  :  stninder,  sunder.  Initial  hit, 
su,  do  not  contract  with  a  following  vowel,  as  in  Anglo-Saxon, 
except  the  parts  of  ciona,  cuman,  come.  Ecthlipsis  of  lo  occurs 
before  oe:  coed^  quoth;  and  between  two  voAvels  ;  final  it  be- 
comes a  vowel,  or  drops,  or  changes  to  g. 

The  manuscripts  are  late,  and  the  whole  aspect  of  the  dialect 
indicates  a  revolutionary  period  of  speech. 


EUPHONIC    CHANGES. 
VARIATION. 

32.  Umlaut  is  a  change  of  vowel  through  the  influence  of 
rt,  «>(?,  or  V,  in  the  following  syllable. 

The  conception  of  a  sound  tends  to  put  the  vocal  organs  in  a  position  to 
utter  it.  We  conceive  the  later  sounds  in  a  word  while  yet  speaking  the 
former ;  hence  the  tendency  to  utter  a  sound  between  the  two.  No  umlaut 
shows  in  Gothic.     Old  II.  German  has  most  a-umlaut ;  Norse,  u-umlaut. 

(1.)  ^.-umlaut. — The  conception  of  a  coming  a  affects  the  ut- 
terance of  i,  so  as  to  produce  the  intermediate  sound  e/  so  it 
changes  u  to  o:  hclpcm  <Cvoot  hdp,  help;  boga<Cxoot  bug, how. 
It  sometimes  changes  i  to  eo :  nid,  neodan,  ncath  ;  Icofad,  live. 


20        EUPHONIC  CHANGES.— BREAKING— ASSIBILATION. 

i-umlaut  changes  a,    a,     o,     ii,     ea,     eo,     H,     ea,     eo, 
to  e,    it',    c,     y,     y,      y,     y,     y,      y. 

.•n,  e,  are  between  a  and  i;  6  is  from  a  {^  38) ;  y  is  between  u  and  i ;  ca, 
eo  have  parasitic  «  (^  33) ;  cd,  co  have  radical  u  {^  38) ;  and  when  the  um- 
laut was  established  tt  was  the  effective  sound  in  all.  For  examples,  sec 
^^  207,  211,  208,  201,  208  (2),  208  (G),  20G,  208  (3),  206.  When  an  old  i 
is  lost,  its  umlaut  is  called  concealed:  f6t,fct(i),  foot,  feet,  ^  84.  Umlaut 
stopped  in  secondary  forms,  whose  primary  have  it,  is  ruckumlaut,  §  189,  d. 

(3.)  Vi-umlaut. — A  coming  u  often  changes  a  to  ea  (ia)  (nearly 
o  in  sound),  ^  to  eo  (io)  for  iu:  bealu,  Old  II. German  balo,  bale; 
beadtc,  O.  II.  German  Badu-,  battle ;  meoluc^  O.  H.  German  miluc, 
milk ;  seofun,  Gothic  sibtai,  seven. 

33.  Breaking  is  the  change  of  one  vowel  to  two  by  a  conso- 
nant. 

The  consonants  most  difficult  to  make,  the  trills  /,  r,  and  the  gutturals  c, 
g,  h,  are  often  accompanied  by  an  involuntary  sympathetic  movement  of 
other  parts  of  the  organs,  which  produces  what  may  be  called  a  parasitic 
sound — the  lip  semi-vowel  w,  p,  or  the  palatal  t.  Americans  hear  the  para- 
sitic I  in  the  Southern  cear  for  car,  gearden  for  garden  ;  the  u  in  hear,  leer. 
The  ^-sc-breakings  are  produced  by  a  parasitic  i>e,  the  A-/-r-breakings  by 
a  M>o,  a.  The  A-Z-r-breaking  ea  oftenest  stands  where  there  should  be 
umlaut  e<^a,  or  shifting  a?<Ca,  and  the  a  of  ca  represents  the  parasitic  sound. 
Labial  assimilation  has  the  effect  of  u ;  sometimes  of  i  by  conformation. 
Analogous  effects  are  traced  here  and  there  through  all  languages.  Compare 
^^34,35,2,5,50. 

(1.)  1,  r,  h,  oftenest  before  a  consonant,  break  foregoing  a  to 
ea  (ia),  i  to  eo  {id) :  sealm,  psalm ;  earm,  arm ;  hleahtor,  laugh- 
ter; (second  consonant  dropped),  ealKeall,  all;  7near <i mear/i^ 
mare;  (single  h  dropped),  sledn  <C.  sleahan,  slay;  meolc,  milk; 
eorl,  earl ;  leoht^  light.     For  ea,  eo,  sometimes  ie  occurs. 

(2.)  ia,f,p,  and  ?<-umlaut  have  the  same  effect,  §  35, 2,  a;  §  32. 

(3.)  g-sc-breaking  has  a  slight  «-sound  between  c  (so),  g,  or 
p,  and  a  vowel  after  it :  ceaster  <  Latin  castrum.,  camp ;  sceo, 
shoe;  geador^  together;  (peoto<p^7a,  wise  man).  It  may  be 
found  before  a,  o,  e,  ^,  o,  e. 

34.  Assibilation  is  the  assimilation  of  a  dental  or  guttural 
with  a  following  «-sound.  It  gives  rise,  among  many  striking 
facts,  to  a  fourth  set  of  letters,  made  by  turning  the  inverted  tip 
of  the  tongue  up  to  the  hard  palate,  §  27.  Such  a  stop,  when 
blowing,  produces  tsh  {tch  iu  fetch) ;  when  breathing,  dzh  {dg 
in  edge)\  if  the  stop  be  not  complete,  it  produces,  when  blowing, 
sh  in  shall;  when  breathing,  zh  {zi  in  glazier). 


EUPHONIC  CHANGES.— ASSIBILATION.  21 

1.  Historical. — These  sounds  are  not  recognized  in  the  Parent  Speech, 
Latin,  Greek,  Gothic,  or  other  most  ancient  alphabets ;  and  hence,  though 
they  are  now  found  almost  all  the  world  over,  they  are  generally  represented 
by  combinations  of  the  earlier  letters,  and  treated  as  compound  consonants. 
They  seem  as  a  matter  of  fact  to  have  been  contrivances  to  take  the  place 
of  certain  difficult  combinations  of  the  simpler  sounds.  Among  the  Indo- 
European  languages,  the  Slavonic  have  most  assibilation ;  the  descendants 
of  the  Latin  come  next. 

It  was  common  in  the  folkspeech  of  Rome ;  ci  interchanges  with  ti  be- 
fore a,  o,  It,  in  the  oldest  remains  of  Latin.  It  is  not  certain  whether  this 
springs  from  a  dialectic  adoption  of  the  imperfect  articulation  common  every 
where  among  children,  or  from  some  peculiarity  of  the  Roman  populace,  e.g., 
one  like  that  of  the  Sandwich  Islanders  (^  27, 1).  When  the  Germans  were 
sifted  over  the  Romanic  regions,  the  chaos  of  language  favored  the  assibi- 
lations,  and  they  spread  in  various  modifications  over  Europe,  as  far  as  the 
Romanic  speech  had  influence. 

The  English  has  the  following : 

Dentals. — ti^  tsh:  Anglo-Saxon /eiza«>  English /eic/j ;   Latin  qves- 

</on/j>  English  question. 
Latin  na^w^-a > English  nature.     (English  u:=i-\-u.) 
ti>5/<  :    Latin  na<t07z/5>  English  nation. 
6.i'y>dzh:  Latin  5o/j<farJM5>  English  soldier;  Latin  modula- 

fjom\s>  English  modulation. 
si>5A:  'Ld.im  pensionis'^'E^ngMsh.  pension;  Latin  5ecMru5> 

English  sure. 
si  (,^=zy  )'^zh:   Latin  thesaurus >  English  treasure, 
zi^zh:  Anglo-Saxon  ^rasz'crn^  English  graze'^ grazier. 

Gutturals. — ci^  tsh:  Latin  ca5/?-wm  >  Anglo-Saxon  ccas^er  >  English 
Chester  {Win-chester)  ;  Anglo-Saxon /'ecia?2,/c/jan>  En- 
glish fetch. 

ci^  sh :   Latin  ocean«5>  English  ocean.      c^s:   Latin  ci- 
ri7/5>  English  civil. 

see  >  sh :  Anglo-Saxon  scacan  >  sceacan  >  English  shake. 

sci  ^s :  Latin  scientia  ^  English  science. 
t  gi>^/cA;  Anglo-Saxon  ecg  (stem  e^z)>English  cr/^e;  Latin 

gcncris^Y^ngWsii  gender. 

gi>y:  Goi\\ic  gards :  Anglo-Saxon  g-carr/ >  English  7/arrf. 

i  >  dzh :   Latin  iocus  >  Italian  gioco  >  English  joke. 

The  beginnings  of  the  following  are  in  Anglo-Saxon :  sc  before  a  and  o 
has  often  changed  to  see  in  the  oldest  manuscripts :  sceacan  for  scacan,  shake. 
The  sound  of  sh  for  sc  in  O.  II.  German  first  appears  in  the  eleventh  cen- 
tury, and  afterward  rules  in  High  German.     As  for  the  Low  German,  sh  is 


22  EUPHONIC  CHANGES.— ASSIMILATION. 

not  yet  in  Dutch,  but  in  Platt-Dcutsch  it  has  become  common  as  in  English. 
There  is  no  indication  in  tlie  alliteration  that  see  is  pronounced  sh,  nor  can 
it  be  received  as  current  literary  speech.  In  the  Anglo-Saxon  of  the  elev- 
enth century,  ch  for  c  begins  to  appear:  child<^cild,  child.  This  is  also 
outside  of  the  literary  speech,  and  springs  from  foreign  (French)  influence. 
The  other  changes  are  still  later,  and  more  purely  Romanic  in  their  source. 
The  only  German  assibilation  is  sh,  and  that  is  later  than  classic  Anglo-Saxon.  < 

2.  Physiological. —  {a.)  Assibilation  of  Dentals. — t  +  i:  tion  in  ques- 
tion. Trying  to  sound  io  as  one  syllabic  tends  to  change  i  to  y.  In  t  the 
tip  of  the  tongue  is  pressed  to  the  upper  gum,  and  the  voice  blown ;  in  y  the 
tip  of  the  tongue  is  dropped  to  the  lower  gum,  and  the  middle  is  humped  up 
toward  the  palate,  and  the  voice  breathed.  In  tsh  the  tip  is  inverted  and 
turned  up  to  the  hard  palate,  and  the  voice  blown.  This  is  a  compromise  in 
two  points  of  view, — as  to  the  place  of  the  stop  (between  the  ^-stop  and  the 
y-stop),  and  as  to  the  kind  of  stop  (inverted  tongue  against  hard  palate  —  a 
roundish  against  a  flatish  surface ;  see  ^  27)  ;  but  it  is  not  a  mechanical  re- 
sult of  an  attempt  to  go  rapidly  through  t-\-y:  it  is  a  quite  new  way  to  make 
a  sound  which  the  ear  will  accept  as  a  substitute  for  the  two.  The  explana- 
tion of  d-{-i  {soldier)  is  the  same,  except  that  the  voice  in  d  and  in  dzh  is 
breathed  instead  of  blown.  The  explanation  of  s  +  *  {pension),  and  of  s-j-i 
(grazier),  is  the  same  as  that  of  t-\-i  and  d-\-i,  except  that  in  these  last 
the  stop  is  not  complete  either  in  blowing  s  and  sh,  or  breathing  z  and  zh. 
In  the  change  of  see  to  sh,  the  e  goes  to  h,  and  only  gives  strength  to  the 
compromise  o(  s-\-y. 

(b.)  The  English  Assibilation  of  Gutturals,  as  though  dentals,  springs 
from  defective  articulation.  The  root  of  the  tongue  never  works  as  easily 
as  the  more  flexible  tip.  Children  say,  and  Anglo-Saxon  children  said,  tan 
for  can,  tin  for  cin ;  and  chin  (tshm')  is  a  not  unnatural  compromise  between 
tin  and  cin.  When  the  organs  are  placed  for  y,  or  i,  or  e,  the  back  of  the 
mouth  makes  the  narrow  neck  of  a  bottle,  ^  22,  and  it  is  hard  to  raise  the 
root  to  make  a  c  (k)  stop.  Hence  c  (A')  before  y,  i,  e,  is  always  unstable  ; 
and  hence  a  child  will  learn  to  say  can  before  cin,  and  will  be  more  likely 
to  compromise  on  chin  than  chan.  The  most  natural  result,  however,  of  the 
difficulty  of  making  this  stop  is  to  make  an  imperfect  stop,  and  give  the  aspi- 
rate h,  ch,  instead  of  c(k),  and  this  tendency  has  prevailed  in  the  Germanic 
tongues.  From  this  aspirate  a  foreign  influence  easily  leads  to  the  assibi- 
lated  palatals  sh,  zh,  etc.  Aphaeresis  of  </  takes  place  in  geard^  i/ard, 
compare  §  28 ;  a  parasitic  d  (dj)  precedes  i,  j  in  Latin  words :  possibly  a 
guttural  g  preceded  in  Italian  the  present  sound  of  gi  as  dzh,  in  gioco<Ci 
Latin  iocus,  joke  ;  Giove  <  Latin  love,  Jove.  Latin  proper  names  of  this 
sort  alliterate  abundantly  in  Anglo-Saxon  poetry  with  words  in  g  hard.    ^  28. 

35.  Assimilation  is  the  act  by  whicli  letters  make  each  other 
alike.  It  includes  breaking  and  umlaut,  as  Avell  as  assibilation. 
Other  changes  of  this  kind  are  called  assimilation  in  a  narrower 

sense. 


EUrilONIC  CHANGES.— ASSIMILATION.  23 

(1.)  A  vowel  may  assimilate  with  a  vowel,    (a.)  Umlaut,  §  32. 

(b.)  The  vowels  become  the  same  :  peorod,  pered^  crowd  ;  pu- 
dupe^  vidua,  widow;  pelerds, peolords,  Gothic  vairilo,  lips;  nal- 
las,  nasllaes<.  needles  <.ne  +  ealles,  not  at  all. 

(2.)  A  consonant  assimilates  a  vowel.  Consonants  of  each  or- 
gan tend  to  change  adjacent  vowels  to  the  vowel  of  that  organ. 

(a.)  Zabials  put  the  mouth  in  such  a  position  that  it  turns  vow- 
el sound  to  or  toward  «.     The  strongest  is  p.     It  produces 

a  change  of  pa,     pa,       (pe),  pi,  pi,         ap,        ip, 

to  o ;      6 ;     (po,  u) ;     peo ;     pu,  u ;     cap ;     eop : 

cpam,  cpdmon  >  com,  comon,  came ;  Northumbrian  posa,  Anglo- 
Saxon  pesan,  to  be  ;  piia  ypeota,  wise  man  ;  piht  ypuht,  whit ; 
dedp,  dew  ;  tredp,  Gothic  t7'iva,  tree.  Compare  §  52.  Before  m 
(n),  sometimes  a>o,  iyeo ;  before/  (p,  b),  ayea,  iyeo:  camb> 
comb;  himyheom;  e(:(/br>Latin  ctper,ho^v;  gifa>geofa,g\\Qv; 
compare  §  32  ;  -am>-um,  §  Vl,  b.  Note  also  the  diphthongs,  §  25. 
The  gutturcds  c  (sc),  g,  place  the  organs  so  as  to  call  out  a 
parasitic  z-sound  (breaking,  §  33),  while  h,  and  the  lingitals  1 
and  r,  especially  when  followed  by  another  consonant,  had  a  burr 
(li-sound),  which  brought  a  preceding  i  to  eo  (§  23),  Northum- 
brian n:  silfystdf,  §  26.     For  l>eu  before  A,  g,  see  §  25. 

In  Latin  I  brings  in  u  most, — ???,  b,p,J',  sometimes:  nebula,  vi<pi\r] ; 
spatula,  GiraToXr} ;  Hecuba,  'Eku/S;/.  The  dentals  bring  in  i :  machina,  /»;- 
Xav!] ;  Masimssa,  Masavdacrje.  The  r  likes  e  before  it :  camera,  Kandpa ; 
cincris<^cinis. 

(3.)  A  vowel  assimilates  a  consonant,      (a.)  Assibilation,  §  34. 

(b.)  Between  two  vowels  a  surd  may  change  to  a  sonant,  or 
a  mute  to  a  continuous ;  h>g,syr,  d=pyd,  gyp,  hp>p,  byf: 
sldh,  slogon,  I  slew,  they  slew  ;  ceds,  curon,  chose ;  cp)xd,  cpsedon, 
quoth ;  bUgian,  bupian,  to  dwell ;  hahban,  hafad,  have,  haveth  ; 
for  seah,  ssege,  sdpe,  saw,  §  197. 

(4.)  A  consonant  assimilates  a  consonant.  This  occurs  in  An- 
o-lo-Saxon  mainly  when,  by  composition,  inflection,  or  apothesis, 
two  consonants  are  brought  together  which  can  not  be  easily 
pronounced  in  the  same  syllable.  The  most  common  case  is  the 
comino-  together  of  a  surd  and  sonant.  One  can  not  breathe  and 
blow  at  once. 

(rt.)  When  surd  and  sonant  letters  are  brought  together,  the 
surd  assimilates  the  sonant. 


24  EUPHONIC  CHANGES.— DISSIMILATION. 

A.  If  the  surd  folloAvs  the  sonant,  a.  gemination  of  the  surd  is 
produced.     In  this  way  Jf\  ss,  ss,  are  sometimes  produced  from 

bf,  ds,  i/s:  q^'riVwi  <  Latin  ob-{-fero,  of- 
fer ;  bliss  <  bltfts,  bUds,  bhss.  And  by  simplifying  gemination 
(§  27,5),  dst^st,  dsf^st:  cpidsf^epist,  quothest ;  hledst^ 
hlest^  load  est. 

Exception  (1).  dp  is  often  written  dd,  according  to  the  ortho- 
graphic rule  that  d  is  always  to  be  used  for  p  within  a  word : 
6d pe,  dppe,  odde,  or.  (2).  ndst  changes  to  ntst,  according  to  the 
analogy  of  case  ^,  through  the  influence  of  the  n,  which  supports 
the  d ;  gs  >  cs=x^  a  favorite  letter ;  7ns  >  ns,  §  130,  c. 

B.  If  the  surd  precedes  the  sonant,  the  sonant  is  changed  to 
the  nearest  surd  of  its  own  organ.    Thus, 

cd,  hd,  pd^  fd^  sr,  sd^  sd,  td, 
to  ct^  ht,  j!?^,  ft,  ss,  sf,  St,  tt:  socde'ysocte'ysohtei^ZQ), 
sought ;  sttpde  >  stepte,  erected  ;  drif{e)d'>  drift,  driveth,  §  194  ; 
pisre^pisse,  of  this ;  cysde'^cyste,  kissed ;  c^sd^cpst,  chooseth ; 
gretde  >  grette,  greeted.  After  this  analogy,  gs'^cs  =  x,  ndst  > 
ntst:  agse'^axe,  ashes;  stendst^stentst,  standest. 

And  by  simplifying  gemination  (§  27,  5),  final  td'^t,  std^st: 
bUtd^blU,  sacrificeth;  birstd^biTSt,\>vcc^te\h',  and  after  a  con- 
sonant: ehtdey- elite,  persecuted.  In  st^ssin  piste'^pisse,\;\%t, 
the  s  is  strong  enough  to  take  an  explosive  over  to  its  continuous. 

{b.)  An  explosive  consonant  before  another  consonant  may 
change  to  a  continuous  of  the  same  organ. 

1.  The  explosive  is  a  complete  stop,  and  hence  it  is  not  easy  to  make  any- 
sound  but  s  after  it  in  the  same  syllable. 

2.  This  fact  may  work  Assimilation  or  Dissimilation,  §  36,  3. 

gd^hd ;  gstyhst:  beige,  bilhst,  bilhd,  to  be  angry;  ng  stands. 
cs<hs:  dcsie^dhsie,o.sk;  cd^hd:  seedy sehd,  seeks,  Hask. 

(c.)  Before  n  a  surd  or  an  explosive  may  change  to  its  cognate 
nasal ;  fn  >  mw,  gn >  ng :  nefne >  nem7ie,  unless ;  stefn  >  stemn, 
stem;  gefrignawy gefringan,  to  inquire.  Compare  («)  and  (5) 
above.    The  veil  is  raised  for  the  w  an  instant  too  soon,  §§  27,  28. 

36.  Dissimilation. —  (l.)  A  vowel  may  change  to  a  conso- 
nant to  avoid  the  hiatus  with  another  vowel;  i~^g,  u'^p :  ne- 
riawynergan,  to  save;  lvfian'yli(figa7i,lvfigean,  to  love;  bealu, 
genitive  becdpes,  bealupes,  baleful.     Compare  §  27,  5. 

(2.)  Between  two  vowels  a  continuous  sometimes  changes  to  a 
mute ;  d  >  d:  prdd,  pridon,  I  writhed,  they  writhed,  ?  §  35, 3,  b. 


EUPHONIC  CHANGES.— COMPENSATION. 


^lO 


(3.)  The  former  explosive  sometimes  changes  to  a  continuous 
of  the  same  organ.  §  35,  4,  J,  2.  hdyfd^  ctyht,  gtyht,  ttyst: 
hcibban,hcefde,hsiye,had;  soctey  so hte,  sought;  d{/a?i,  clhte,  own, 
owned;  motdeymotteymoste,  must;  pitted piste^  wist. 

(4.)  One  of  two  continuous  may  become  explosive;  hs'yx- 
cs?  (§  28,  h) :  feax.  Old  H.  German  fahs^  hair  ;  Idyld:  beald, 
Gothic  bcdjjs,  bold ;  Id  seldom  occurs :  fekt,  falleth  ;  spcld^  house. 

(5.)  The  former  sonant  becomes  a  surd  in  dd>{td^)t  (§  35, 
J))  in  the  third  singular  of  ^erbs  (Conformation) :  st€7idd~>  stoit, 
standeth. 

(G.)  Successive  syllables. — In  Latin  and  English,  -al  and  -«;■  in- 
terchange to  keep  I  or  r  from  successive  syllables :  stellar.,  solar., 
liberal.,  literal;  so  coeridean^^coelum.  The  former  assibilation  is 
often  smoothed  in  America:  pronunciation.,  §  34.  The  former 
aspirate  is  not  smoothed  in  Teutonic  as  it  is  in  Greek. 

37.  Compensation. —  (l.)  A  consonant  is  dropped  and  the 
preceding  vowel  lengthened  at  the  same  time.  1.  Before  rf,y,  s, 
Avith  ecthlipsis  of  ?^,  a  change  of  a,  e,  ^,  xi.,  y,  to  J,  e,  ?,  t"?,  ^ .'  tod., 
Old  H.  German  zand.,  Latin  dent'xs.,  tooth ;  soft..  Old  H.  German 
scnfti,  soft ;  gos.,  Old  H.  German  Jeans,  goose  ;  oder.,  other ;  sod., 
sooth ;  Jiosu.,  company ;  so  genedan.,  sptd,  sid^fif.,  itser,  cilde,  Ude, 
mUd,  hilsl,  pd.  2.  AVith  ecthlipsis  of  g,  mostly  before  n:  pwgti^ 
psen,  wain ;  pegnypen,  thane ;  regtiigyrenig,  rainy ;  pign'^pin, 
food ;  Jasgr  '^/ter,  fair ;  ssegde  >  swde,  said  ;  ligd  >  ltd,  lieth  ;  see 
idde'yeode,  went.  3.  With  apocope  of  c,  </,  7i,  r:  mec^me,  me ; 
pecype,  thee;  higyheo{?),  they;  feohyfeo,  fee;  ge  {<Cger), 
ye;  me  (<j«(?r),  to  me;  pt  (<7>e/'),to  thee;  pe  (<per),  we. 

(2.)  A  consonant  is  doubled  and  a  following  vowel  dropped  at 
the  same  time ;  i  is  dropped  with  gemination  of  a  preceding  b,  e, 
d,f,  g,  I,  m,  n,  s  :  habiariy  habban,  have ;  recianyreccan,  to  rule; 
bidia^iybiddan,  to  hid;  spejiany spebban,  to  sleep;  ligianylic- 
gan,  to  lie ;  telianytellan,  to  tell ;  fremianyfremman,  to  frame ; 
chjnian >  chjnnan,  to  clang ;   cnysian > cnyssan,  to  knock. 

(3.)  After  a  long  root  syllable  neuter  -u  drops,  and  i  of  stem 
-ia  weakens  to  c,  or  drops :  secian  >  secean,  seca7i,  to  seek. 

1.  Speech  naturally  runs  in  pulses;  a  certain  length  of  time  and  a  certain 
volume  of  sound  is  plcasantcst  between  the  pauses  or  accentual  beats.  The 
tendency  of  speech  to  preserve  this  rhythm  by  lengthening  the  remaining  let- 
ters when  one  is  dropped,  or  shortening  all  letters  when  a  new  letter  is  added, 
is  called  Compensation,  and  the  name  is  extended  to  all  adjustments  of  quanti- 
ty and  accent  which  restore  the  rhythm  after  the  adding  or  dropping  of  letters. 

•2.  In  the  pronunciation  of  Latin  according  to  the  Knglish  method,  an  ac- 


20  EUrilONIC  CHANGES.— GRAVITATION. 

centcd  vowel  in  any  syllable  before  tbe  penult  is  shortened  in  sound,  no  mat- 
ter what  may  have  been  its  original  quantity  ;  while  such  a  vowel  in  the  pe- 
nult has  the  long  sound.  The  same  law  prevails  in  the  Romanic  portion  of 
English:  brief,  briefer,  brcv'-ity ;  admire,  admi'-rer,  mtr'-acle,  mirac- 
ulous. The  whole  body  of  words  conform  to  what  was  the  fact  in  the  larger 
number  of  Latin  words.  It  shows  that  a  long  accented  syllable  followed  by 
two  unaccented  is  more  than  the  natural  length  of  the  rhythm.  This  force 
of  compensation  is  not  so  plain  in  the  Anglo-Saxon  portion  of  English,  and 
we  do  not  know  enough  of  the  pronunciation  of  Anglo-Saxon  to  trace  its  ef- 
fects with  accuracy.  A  word  with  an  affix  sometimes  has  a  lighter  vowel  than 
the  kindred  word  without  one  :  pcgn,  servant,  pignen,  maid-servant ;  bera, 
bear,  biren,  bearish ;  but  the  change  may  be  (almost)  always  explained  from 
assimilation  of  some  kind.     Unaccented  syllables  show  compensation.    ^  46. 

3.  When  more  voice  than  two  short  syllables  follows  an  accented  syllable, 
the  old  accent  often  moves  forward,  or  a  second  accent  is  given  :  admire, 
admira-tion;  mir'-acle,mirac-ulous;  Icg'-ible,  leg'-ibil'-ity.  This  law 
is  to  be  seen  most  clearly  in  the  Romanic  portion  of  English. 

4.  Compensation  acts  in  connection  with  Gravitation.     ^  38. 

38.  G-ravitation  is  tlie  tendency  of  sounds  to  accentual  cen- 
ters. It  is  seen  in  the  lengthening  of  accented  syllables,  and  the 
lightening  and  final  disappearance  of  unaccented  syllables.  It 
goes  on  in  all  languages. 

A.  Vowels. — Rule  I.  Progression. — Under  the  accent  the 
simple  vowels  a,  i,  u,  lengthen  by  prefixing  a  and  d. 

Mixed  vowels  and  breakings  move  to  their  latter  element ;  diphthongs  ea, 
eo,  and  all  whose  former  vowel  is  long,  move  to  their  former  vowel :  e  ia-\~i), 
>2;  0  (a+M)>w,*  y  (m+01>'>"  c«)  ed'^d,  6;  eo,  eb^u,  o;  diphth.  ea>e, 
etc. ;  eo<ii,  ea<iau,  often  go  to  e,  ^^  203,  204,  41,  33. 

(a.)  Accentual  effort  opens  to  the  a-shape  the  neck  of  the  bottle  shaped  for  i  or  ii,  §  22 ; 
too  much  a  weakens  to  u  or  i;  aaa^aau,  6,  etc. ;  eo<?,  ea,  are  in  unstable  equilibrium. 

Rule  II.  Precession. — In  an  unaccented  syllable  the  progres- 
sion of  simple  vowels  is  reversed ;  also  a  goes  to  o,  ii,  or  i,  then 
to  e;  i  goes  to  e ,'  u  to  o  and  e ;  ^  disappears. 

(I.)  In  the  Parent  Speech  were  the  following  series: 
a,  «-}-«  =  «,  d-\-a=da.     i,  a^,  di.     u,  an,  du. 

In  Anglo-Saxon  the  following  series  are  found : 

Descending.        1st  term.  Ascending. 

a-series:  e    i,  u  a,  le,  o        a,  iv,  S        6 

i-series:  u  i  i  a 

u-series:  u      o  u  c6,  A        ea 

Ascending:  y'«a?^>  ^jamo??-,  they  took;  hroder  (Sanskrit 
bJirdtd,  Latin  frdter),  brother;    -^Ivefj^ldgon.,  livgon.,  they  lay; 


EUPHONIC  CHANGES.— GBAVITATIOX.  27 

sc«;i>shone;  ^^ scin'y> scinan^  scd?i,  sbiue,  shone ;  -yj lug^leogan^ 
ledg^  lie,  lied;  ■\/suc^si1ccm,  sedc,  suck,  sucked;  sc«t>  shine 
(English  tz^d-{-i);  mils'^mouse  (English  ou—d-\-ti) ;  tM'^teeth 
(ee=i) ;  tod "^ tooih  {oo='il) ',  hprati'^heixv  {ea=zt) ;  mps'^mice 
(^>?>a4-^');  beald '^hold  ;  ea?>all;  scec'^a«> shoot;  bedm^ 
beam;   Jed > bee. 

Descending  :  -y/  luf'^luf  ode^  Ivf'dde^  luf'ude^  luf'ede,  loved ; 
pidgal'^pidgil,  pidgel,  wide  spread  ;  landsceap^  landscipe^  land- 
scape; A2yri'lis^  A' prelis,  At^xW;  (Gothic  ??zffm,  Old  H.  German 
mart)  mere^  mere  (sea);  (Sanskrit  madJm)  meodu^meodo'^ Old 
English  m^(7^>mead.  Here  also  belong  many  forms  of  verbs 
now  accented,  but  formerly  unaccented :  bmde,  bimdenK-x/band, 
bind,  bound;  for  a  fuller  explanation  of  which,  see  Ablaut,  158  ; 
also  nearly  all  the  affixes  of  declension  and  conjugation,  for  which 
see  Etymology,  as  referred  to  in  the  Index. 

(2.)  The  changes  in  the  Anglo-Saxon  series  may  be  comparecl  with  Rules 
I.  and  II.  and  changes  in  other  languages  given  on  page  8,  ^  18  :  ay  IP,  o, 
lautverschiebung  as  in  Greek  and  Latin  ;  rt>te,  e,  same  ;  da>du  (Rule  I.) 
><?  (Greek  and  Latin);  ai>t,  Rule  I.  (Latin);  di>d.  Rule  I.  (Greek); 
aic'^lt  (Rule  I.,  Latin) ;  aiO>hc  (Rule  I.  Greek  fv)^e6  by  a-umlaut  in 
stems  of  verbs  and  nouns,  and  by  conformation  elsewhere  (^  32,  40),  San- 
skrit has  6,  Friesic  ia  ;  du  >  d"  >  d*'  >  'd  metathesis  to  breaking  to  con- 
form with  eo  (Friesic  d).  The  descending  series  already  shows  itself  in  San- 
skrit in  changing  a  to  a  and  i;  i  and  u  to  e  was  not  yet  in  Gothic.  See 
^  23,  e.  In  Latin  and  the  Romanic  part  of  English,  a  in  open  syllables 
goes  to  i;  before  r,  to  6;  in  close  syllables,  to  e;  before  I,  to  u ;  e  often 
goes  to  i,  but  before  r  or  in  close  syllables  it  remains  ;  facio,  efficio,  efficient ; 
pater,  Jupiter  ;  pario,  aperio,  aperient ;  danvio,  condemno,  condemn  ;  salto, 
exsulto,e\\i\i;  lego,diligo,<\'\\\geni\  z?2/e?-o,  infer  ;  correc turn,  cotxgcI.  (Lat- 
in accent  originally  on  the  prefix.     ^41,  4.) 

(3.)  The  changes  from  Anglo-Saxon  to  English  take  a  new  start,  and  are 
wholly  analogous  to  the  original  series  of  the  Parent  Speech. 

(4.)  The  first  lengthening  of  i  and  u  by  progression  is  called  guna  (mas- 
culine strength),  a  term  of  Sanskrit  grammar ;  the  second  is  called  vriddhi 
feminine  increment). 

(5.)  The  various  kinds  of  assimilation  and  sound-shifting  work  together 
with  progression;  the  result  of  the  whole  upon  the  vowel  system  of  the  An- 
glo-Saxon is  shown  in  the  summary  on  page  7. 

B.  From  Gravitation  also  springs  (a)  the  gemination  of  a  con- 
sonant ending  an  accented  syllable :  the  common  cases  have  been 
mentioned  under  Compensation  (§  37)  ;  {b)  also  the  dropping  of 
consonants  in  unaccented  syllables,  and  some  weakenings,  §  41,  b. 


28     EUrilONIC  CHANGES.— MIMETIC  CHANGES.— SHIFTING. 

39.  Ablaut. — See  Etymology. 

40.  Mimetic  Changes  are  those  occurring  through  the  in- 
fluence of  other  Avords.  g  158. 

1.  Conformation. — The  words  of  all  languages  show  a  disposition  to  con- 
form in  inflection  to  the  majority.  The  Anglo-Saxon  nouns  have  gone  over 
to  a  single  declension  in  English ;  and  the  strong  verbs,  one  after  another, 
go  over  to  the  inflection  of  the  weak.     - 

2.  Simulation. — The  feigning  a  connection  with  words  of  similar  sound  is 
an  important  fact  in  English  and  other  modern  languages  :  asparagus'^ spar- 
row gras.f.  It  probably  had  just  as  full  play  in  ancient  speech,  but  its  effects 
can  not  be  so  surely  traced.     See  carc-crn,  ^  229  ;  fne,  ^  254. 

3.  Bifurcation  is  the  separation  of  a  word  into  two  :  home,  born  ;  truth, 
troth;  luake,  ivatch ;  four,  flower ;  balsam,  balm.  There  are  hundreds  of 
words  in  English  produced  by  this  kind  of  fissiparous  generation.  Where  it 
is  produced  by  a  foreign  word  coming  into  English  in  different  ways,  it  has 
been  called  Dimorphism  :   ration,  reason. 

4.  The  law  of  contrast  also  operates  to  sunder  different  words  of  similar 
sound,  especially  if  one  of  the  words  have  odious  associations  :  grocer  < 
grosser;   cucumber  <i  cowcumber ;   boiK^bile. 

41.  Shifting  {Lautverschiehung)  is  a  change  of  sound  not  due 
to  other  sounds  in  the  language.  Changes  in  climate  or  modes 
of  life,  mixing  nations  of  different  stocks,  ease  of  utterance,  and 
more  obscure  causes,  affect  the  adjustment  of  the  vocal  organs  to 
the  mind,  and  so  shift  the  speech  of  nations.  The  current  corre- 
sponding sounds  in  several  of  the  Indo-European  languages  are 
given  on  page  8. 

(1.)  Vowels. — Tliere  was  a  gradual  weakening  of  the  vowels  in 
the  ancient  languages.  The  Sanskrit  a  shifts  to  a,  £,  o,  in  Greek, 
and  to  rt,  g,  i,  o,  ic,  in  Latin  ;  u  shifts  to  o  /  i  to  e.  Ease  of  ut- 
terance and  consonant  assimilation  work  together  for  close  vowels. 

This  movement  is  modified  by  assimilation,  compensation,  and  gravitation, 
but  in  long  periods  the  shifting  is  plain ;  a  weakened  vowel  can  seldom  be 
found  in  Sanskrit  where  the  full  form  is  in  Greek  or  Latin.  The  short  vow- 
els are  not  found  to  shift  in  comparing  one  Teutonic  tongue  with  another. 
The  movement  of  the  long  vowels  is  found  on  page  8.  Within  the  Anglo- 
Saxon  we  have  referred  to  this  shifting  in  speaking  of  «>a?,  a>0,  a^ct', 
ce  >  g,  e«  >  e,  CO  >  i,  ea>e,  eo>e. 

(2.)  Consonants  to  Vowels. — In  the  table,J>/,  f  >w,  are  noted  in 
Anglo-Saxon;  they  occur  also  in  Sanskrit,  Greek,  Latin,  etc. ;  />i<;and 
/>  z  are  common  in  the  Romanic  languages  :  Latin  collum'^  French  col^ 
cou,  neck  ;  Latin  planus  >  Italian  piano,  plane.  Compare  ^  35,  2,  b.  The 
movement  is  sometimes  reversed,  as  when  a  nation  moves  northward,  or 
northern  peoples  mix  with  a  vowel-speaking  race  :  Anglo-Saxon  (/<C^.   §  34. 


EUPHONIC  CHANGES— SHIFTING.  29 

(3.)  Consonants  to  Consonants. — Regular  shifting  is  to  weak- 
er consonants :  gutturals  to  palatals,  labials,  dentals ;  smooth  to 
middle ;  rough  to  middle.  Surd  to  sonant,  mute  to  continuous, 
§  35,  3,  h. 

A.  Shifting  to  a  co-ordinate  consonant. — (a.)  One  smooth  mute 
to  another :  Xkof,  Latin  liipus^  wolf,  (i.)  One  middle  to  another : 
yXvKVQ  (metathesis),  Latin  dulcis,  sweet,  (c.)  Rough  to  rough, 
{d.)  Spirant  to  spirant :  ffeseah,  gesepen,  saw,  seen  (§  35,  3,  J) ;  yfxi, 
Latin  semi,  (e.)  Liquid  to  liquid  :  Latin  asi?ms,  Gothic  asilus, 
Anglo-Saxon  esol,  ass ;  German  kind,  Anglo-Saxon  cild,  child ; 
Latin  pncmmi,  Anglo-Saxon  pluma,  plum.  These  shiftings  are 
occasional,  or  dialectic. 

Jj.  Shifting  to  another  consonant  of  the  same  class : 

{a.)  Grimm's  Law,  lautverschiebung  by  eminence  (see  §  19). 
"VYith  the  progress  of  the  Teutonic  tribes  northwestward  they 
came  to  use  for  each  smooth  mute  the  corresponding  rough,  for  a 
rough  the  corresponding  middle,  for  a  middle  the  corresponding 
smooth.  This  first  shift  is  believed  to  have  been  completed  dur- 
ing the  third  century ;  and  here  the  Gothic,  the  Anglo-Saxon  and 
other  Low  Germanic,  and  the  Scandinavian  languages  rested. 

The  High  German  went  on,  and  shifted  in  the  same  way  a  sec- 
ond time ;  so  that  since  the  seventh  century  it  stands  in  the  same 
relation  to  the  other  Teutonic  languages  that  they  do  to  the  rest 
of  the  Indo-European  family. 

Gutturals  :  k  (c)  >ch  (h)  >g  ?  (h) :  Lat.  cajyut.,  A.-Sax.  heaf- 
od,  head,  O.  II.  Ger.  hoxipit ;  ch(h)  >  g>k :  Lat.  homo.,  A.-Sax. 
guma.,  man,  O.  H.  Ger.  homo  ;  g > k  (c)  >  ch  (h) :  Lat.  ego.,  A.- 
Sax.  ic,  I,  O.  H.  Ger.  ih.  — Dentals  :  t>th,  dh>d :  Lat.  tres., 
A.-Sax.  7)n,  three,  O.  H.  Ger.  drt ;  d>  t>th?  (z) :  Lat.  dentis., 
A.-Sax.  tod,  tooth,  O. H.  Ger.  zand ;  th (Lat.  f )  >d>t :  0//p,  Lat. 
fera,  A.-Sax.  dear,  deer  >  O.  H.  Ger.  tior.  —  Labials  :  p  >  f  >  b  ? 
(f):  YsiX.  pedis,  A.-Sax. /o%  foot,  O.  H.  Ger. /wos/  b>p>f: 
Lat.  cannabis,  A.-Sax.  henep,  hemp,  O.H.  Ger.  hanaf;  f  >  b>p : 
Lat.  f rater,  A.-Sax,  broder,  brother,  O.  II.  Ger.  pruodar. 

(rt.)  The  change  otrmigh  mntcs  to  middle  is  a  regalar  weakening  in  Bactrian,  Slavonic, 
Lithuanic,  Celtic,  and  not  infrequent  in  Grcelc  and  Latin.  That  of  smooth  to  rough  (the 
use  of  parasitic  h)  is  occasional  in  Sanskrit,  Persian,  Greek,  Latin,  and  abundant  in  Old 
Irish.  That  oi  middle  to  nviooth  is  a  strengthening  peculiar  to  the  Teutonic,  and  an  enijr- 
ma.  Americans  seem  to  hear  foreigners  use  it  freely  in  talking  English.  Germans  and 
Celts  u(=e  more  surd  breath  and  less  sonant  than  \vc.  Their  r/,  h,  d  are  heard  as  k,  p,  (, 
their  k,  p,  t  as  aspirates.  "  K(h)ill  the  poys,"  says  Fluellen  (Hen.  V.,  iv.,  7).  This  suggests 
the  hypothesis  that  Celts  adopted  the  speech  of  invading  Teutons,  that  their  Celtic  pronun- 
ciation of  it  as  heard  by  the  Teutons  became  current,  and  that  clunatic  influences  and  al- 


30  FIGUKATION.— APIIiERESIS. 

literal  ion  made  the  change  thorough.  The  Teutonic  instinct  for  preserving  distinctions 
helped,  since,  when  the  rough  weakened  to  middle,  they  would  incline  to  change  the  old 
middles  to  preserve  the  correlation.  There  arc  many  exceptions  to  Grimm's  Law:  1.  A 
letter  is  often  fixed  by  combination  with  another :  d  in  nd.  Id ;  t  in  sf,  ht,  ft.  2.  Rough  kh, 
pli,  often  early  changed  to  continuous  /i, /,  and  rested,  §  27,  2.  The  whole  shifting  of  the 
High  German  gutturals  and  labials  is  thus  disturbed.  The  corresponding  letters,  as  oftenest 
found,  may  be  seen  in  5  19. 

(b.)  Other  cases  of  shifting  may  bo  i  >  g,  h  >  g,  strengthen- 
ings in  Anglo-Saxon  and  elsewhere ;  g  >  h,  (t  >  s,  S  >  r,  d  >  1, 
b>f>v,  common  Aveakenings.  Most  of  the  cases  in  Anglo- 
Saxon  have  been  referred  to  in  §§  35,  36. 

(4.)  Accent. — There  are  three  systems  of  accentuation :  1st, 
the  grammatical,  in  Avhich  the  accent  is  given  to  that  syllabic 
which  last  modifies  the  general  notion,  i.  e.,  to  the  affixes  and  pre- 
fixes of  inflection  ;  2d,  the  rhythmical,  in  which  the  accented  syl- 
lable is  determined  by  the  number  and  quantity  of  the  syllables 
in  the  word  ;  3d,  the  logical,  in  which  the  accented  syllable  is  the 
first  of  those  expressing  the  main  notion,  i,  e.,  the  root  syllable  or 
a  prefix  of  composition  defining  it.  The  earliest  Indo-European 
languages  are  least  straitened  by  any  one  system ;  but  the  first  is 
in  its  greatest  vigor ;  the  Sanskrit  acute  may  be  given  to  any 
part  of  a  word.  The  Greek  and  Latin  came  under  the  rhythmical 
influence,  and  in  the  classical  time  used  the  acute  only  on  one  of 
the  three  last  syllables.  The  Teutonic  languages  became  alto- 
gether logical,  §  15.  This  shifting  of  accent  is  a  fundamental  fact 
in  the  explanation  of  Ablaut  and  many  other  phonetic  facts  in 
Anglo-Saxon  and  all  other  Indo-European  languages. 


FIGURATION. 

42.  The  dropping  of  sounds  is  mostly  connected  with  gravita- 
tion (§  38).  Adding  of  sounds  without  change  of  sense  is  rare; 
but  the  shifting  of  accent  (§  41,  4),  or  the  handing  over  a  word 
to  a  race  with  diflerent  habits  of  speech,  or  even  the  bringing  to- 
gether by  syncope  or  ecthlipsis  of  difficult  combinations  of  let- 
ters occasionally  calls  for  euphonic  additions.  Prosthesis  is  most- 
ly gemination  (§  27,  4), -or  parasitic  (§  33),  or  conformation  with 
similar  words  in  which  the  added  letter  is  significant.  Metathesis 
is  mostly  euphonic  and  dialectic. 

43.  Aphaeresis  is  found  of  unaccented  e,  ge ;  of  c  in  C7i;  of 
h  in  hi,  hn,  hr,  and  elsewhere;  ofp  \n pi, pr, pu :  hisceop  <  Lat. 
episcojms,  bishop  ;  pistol  <  Lat.  e^nstola,  epistle  ;  geltc  >  like  ; 
geclddod  >  yclad  >  clad  ;   cneO  >  knee  ;   hldfy  loaf;   hnappung 


APOCOPE.— SYNCOPE.— PEOTHESIS.—EPENTHESIS.  81 

> napping;   /ir«/«>  raven  (§31);   ym7i<i'Lat.  hi/)7i7ius,  hymn  ; 
pUsj)  >  lisp  ;  2?rota?i,  root. 

44.  Apocope  is  found  of  all  syllables  of  inflection.  The  vow- 
els go  to  e  and  drop ;  c  and  r  in  the  pronouns,  and  </,  A,  m,  7i,  s, 
may  drop.     See  Declension  and  Conjugation. 

45.  Elision  is  found  of  the  stem  vowel  e,  i,  and  of  final  e  Avlien 
two  words  are  drawn  together:  secea7iy  secan,  seek;  pergiany 
l)€7'gan,  damn  ;  cli/numy  di/micm,  clang;  bi1tmK.be -{-^1tan,  hut; 
nan  <i ne-\-  dn^  none;  nabban <  ne  +  habban,  not  have;  nces  < 
ne  -|-pcT5,  was  not. 

40.  Syncope  is  found  of  an  unaccented  stem  vowel  before 
I,  n,  r ;  less  often  before  c?,  c/,  8t ;  sometimes  before  c,  g^  ni,  P-, 
and  other  consonants ;  oftenest  when  the  consonant  is  followed 
by  a  syllable  of  inflection :  engel^  englds,  angel,  angels ;  heofoa, 
heofnes,  heaven,  heaven's  ;  pmter,  pintres,  winter,  winter's ; 
dcm[e)de,  deemed;  ha'/{e)st,  /iccf{e)d,  hast,  hath;  mwiecy- miinc, 
monk  ;  huUg,  hulges,  holy ;  mdd{u)m,  gem  ;  pid{e)pe,  Avidow  ; 
epic '>  cue,  quick  (?).     Syncope  often  brings  on  ecthlijisis. 

47.  Ecthlipsis  is  found  of  c?,  d,  s,  st,  before  st ;  of  n  before 
</,/,  5/  of  d,  g,  A,  i,p,  mostly  between  vowels  or  before  a  liquid : 
hle{d)st^  losidest ;  ejnld) st,  qnothest;  e?/(s)s^,  choosest;  bi7'{st)st, 
burstest;  for  «,  <7,  §  Si ;  fedper  {Goihio  fdvo7'),  four;  peg7iy 
pe7i,  thane  ;  f)'edga7i>fred7i,  to  love ;  tedhcm>  tedn,  tug;  «er(?')-' 
est,  savest ;  n'dlcm >  ne  +pilla7i,  to  be  imwilliug.  Jlostlg  cissim- 
ilcdion  mid  ge7nination. 

48.  Prothesis  is  found  of  A,  i  consonant  (y),  and  p  by  blun- 
der (§  31),  Apparent  prothesis  of  b,  g,  ge,  n,  s,  is  fomid  in  An- 
glo-Saxon or  English,  but  probably  sjirings  from  conformation 
Avith  the  many  words  beginning  with  be-,  by,  ge-,  together,  d/i, 
an,  its,  out:  meltan,  S77ielta7i,  melt,  smelt;  nadder,  adder;  ISTed, 
Edward  ;  Nanny,  Anna.  So  in  the  French  :  espaee  <  Lat.  sj)a- 
thmi,  space;  conforming  Avith  Avords  beginning  Avitli  Latin  ex-: 
eclore,  exclure  <  Lat.  exclaudo,  excludo,  exclude.  Real  prothesis 
is  pretty  common  in  Greek:  6(ppvc  (Sanskrit  bh7'fi),  broAv;  fWn'/p, 
star. 

49.  Epithesis  is  found  of  e;  of  b  after  m;  of  d,  t,  after  oi,  I, 
r ;  of  t  after  s,  and  7i  after  a  voAvel.  Those  of  e.  and  n  are  con- 
formations of  declension  and  inflection,  whidh  see:  la7n{b),  lamb; 
tyran(t);  len(d);  moul(d);  affbr(d);  mids(t) ;  betjn(x{t) ,'hetvi\xt ; 
■s{t)  second  singular  of  verbs.    See  §  27,  5. 

50.  Epenthesis  is  found  of  a  voavcI  between  two  consonants, 
e.g.,  e  before  r;   e,  o,  xi,  before  ;;/,  n,  ]> ;    of  g,  n,  p,  betAveen 


32  METATHESIS.— CONTRACTION. 

vowels ;  of  d  after  n,  I  (especially  followed  by  I  or  r) ;  of  t  after 
s;  of  n  before  </,  s,  d ;  of  Z  between  a  consoiiaut  and  following  ej 
of  r  before  s,  th,p->  ^"^^  ^^^^^  ^  ^^5  i^/  °^^^  between  «i  and  Z,  r,  or 
a  short  vowel ;  of  ^j  between  m  and  ?i,  «,  or  t :  meter  <  Lat.  me- 
tnoii,  meter ;  bosom  <  ios)«,  bosom ;  glisnian  >  glisten  ;  beal{o)- 
7?f5,  bale's ;  mcoluc  <  meolc,  milk  (Latin  midgeo,  Greek  a/xeXyw, 
Sanskrit  »/;?r/')  ;  ^^'fiioV^'^h  love  ;  gife{n)d,  gifts' ;  ?n<«w  >  buf/an, 
bilpan,  inhabit  (§§  221,  224,  e) ;  picnor  yjninder,  thunder;  bal{d)- 
sam^  balsam  ;  glisnian  >  glisten  ;  oiihtegale,  nightingale  ;  e(n)- 
sample;  Sarmende  <'Ltx.t.  Sarmatcc  ;  myrt(l)e  ;  ct?cf(S  >  could  ; 
/< as,  hoarse;  spaduy  ?,\f^vt\\',  co(r)poral  < French  caporal <icop^ 
chief;  cart(r)idge;  part(r)idge;  chal(d)ron;  J?'^c^7t<ma  >  bride- 
groom; <w7iJe;'  (Gothic  ^«»2r/a«),  timber  ;  ?« em 0^  >  nimble  ;  sco- 
llmbos  <Cl^o.t.  scolymos,  a  thistle;  nemne'>  nemjyne  (Chaucer), 
name;   glim(p)se;   e?ne^//7 >  empty.  §  27,  5,  33. 

51.  IVEetathesis  is  found  oi  Jipyich,  sp^ypts^  g)i';>ng,  ns> 
sn,  5C>a',  sgyx;  of  a  vowel  with  a  following  I  or  r  when  a 
mute  precedes ;  of  a  vowel  with  a  preceding  I  or  r  when  a  mute 
precedes :  hp%  white  (graphic  only) ;  pvespie,  psejjse,  wasp ;  peg7i, 
peng,  thane ;  clsensian^  cloisnian^  cleanse ;  Jisc  "^Jix,  fish ;  dscian, 
dxian,  ask;  axe  (Gothic  azgo),  ashes;  beorht,  5ryA^, bright ;  tdel, 
idle  (graphic) ;  grxs,  gxrs,  grass ;  osle,  cusel  (rare) ;  so  irnan, 
rinnan,  run.  

CONTRACTION. 

52.  In  the  Teutonic  languages  the  hiatus  is  not  generally  avoid- 
ed by  contraction,  but  by  elision  or  epenthesis ;  or  it  stands. 

(1.)  Synroresis  is  found  in  Anglo-Saxon  after  ecthlipsis  of  g  or 
h,  and  the  assimilation  of  p  to  w. 

When  unlike  vowels  meet,  a  mixed  sound  is  produced  in  which 
the  open  vowel  predominates :  a,  0,  6,  with  another  vowel  be- 
come dy  i(,  e,  lengthen  the  preceding  vowel;  i  drops;  «+«=«/ 
z(-\-a=zo/  t-{-a=eo  (^  breaks) :  fdhany-J'dn^iake;  gefeohany- 
gefeon^  rejoice ;  gefeohe  >  gefeo ;  teohan  >  teon,  tug ;  freogan  > 
freon,  love;  cpdmony-  cudmon^  comon,  come;  fseger';>fxr^ 
fair ;  supl  >  sdul^  soul ;  epic  >  cuic  >  cue,  quick ;  sleahan  >  sledn, 
slay ;   cpam  >  com  >  com,  come ;  pihan  ypedn,  grow. 

(2.)  The  reduplicatibn  contracts  with  the  root  of  verbs;  a  +  a, 
ic-\-€d,  !i}-\-o,  give  eo,  which  shifts  to  e /  &-\-a,  ie-\-ea,  ie-\-iB,  con- 
form.    See  Inflection,  §  159. 

(3.)  For  traces  of  synizesis,  synaloepha,  and  other  contractions 
in  Anglo-Saxon  poetry,  see  §§  509,  510. 


PART   11. 
ETYMOLOGY. 


I.  DEFINITIONS. 

53.  Etymology  treats  of  the  stnicture  and  history  of  words. 
It  inchides  classification,  inflection,  and  derivation. 

54.  A  Word  is  an  elementary  integer  of  speech.  It  has  a 
mixed  nature :  it  is  thought  on  one  side,  and  sound  on  the  other. 

55.  ISiotional  and  Relational. — An  analysis  of  the  words 
of  the  Indo-European  languages  gives  two  kinds  of  significant 
sounds:  (1)  those  co?inotiug  qualities:  e.  g.,  of  acts,  as  eat,  sit, 
go,  knoio,  love;  of  substances,  as  wet,  red,  quick;  (2)  those  co7i- 
noting  relations:  e.g.,  of  space,  time,  subject,  object;  as  here, 
there,  then,  me,  he.  The  first  are  called  notional ;  the  second, 
relational. 

56.  Radicles  are  elementary  relational  parts  of  words.  They 
are  generally  single  sounds  —  oftenest  a  consonant  sound.  The 
labials  connote  subjective  relations  oftenest ;  the  dentals,  object- 
ive and  demonstrative ;  the  gutturals,  interrogative ;  the  nasals 
often  connote  negation  ;  the  voAvels,  oftenest  simple  limitation. 
Radicles  are  found  (1)  as  the  essential  part  of  words  which  de- 
note relation  (prepositions  and  adverbs) :  -j^-p,  up ;  b-?,  by ;  o-f, 
of;  Xdrid,  with;  a2-t,  at;  \-6,  to;  \-&,r,  there;  J)-a3?me,  then  ; 
sp-<^,  so ;  hp-ccr,  where  ;  hp-a?n?«e,  when  ;  (2)  of  words  which  de- 
note persons  or  things  directly  as  having  the  relation  connoted 
by  tlie  radicle  (substantive  pronouns) :  Xd-e,  me ;  J)-r?,  thou ;  \\-c, 
he ;  s-eo,  she ;  (3)  of  words  which  define,  as  having  certain  re- 
lations, objects  denoted  by  other  words  (adjective  pronouns)  : 
XQ.-in,  mine ;  })-?;i,  thine  ;  \)-ixit,  that ;  sp-27c,  such  ;  \\^-vct,  what ; 
(4)  united  to  roots  to  form  stems,  see  §  58 ;  (5)  united  to  stems 
of  nouns  or  pronouns  as  factors  of  relation  (case -endings  or  ad- 
verbial affixes) :  S7nictes,  smith's  ;  leafds,  leaves;  him,  him ;  pwr, 
there ;  paniian,  thence ;  sec  §  GO ;  (6)  united  to  stems  of  verbs 
as  factors  of  relation  (inflection  endings):  com,  am;  li/Jiast, 
lovest ;  li/fiad,  \ovcih. 

57.  A  Root  is  an  elementary  notional  pvllablc.     A  few  arc 

C 


34  CLASSIFICATION.— DECLKXSION  OF  NOUNS. 

formed  by  onomatope  from  noises ;  hrlng,  ring ;  has,  hoarse ;  a 
few  from  sounds  naturally  expressive  of  feeling :  Jdeah-tor,  laugh- 
ter ;  pop,  whoop ;  or  vocal  gesture :  st,  whist ;  sta-niX ;  some  are 
a  growth  from  the  radicles,  and  descriptive  primarily  of  being  or 
motion  in  the  direction  or  mode  connoted  by  the  radicle:  2?inian, 
to  go  in;  -iliian,  to  put  out;  2/ji>pan,  to  ojyoi  (i=raise  vjy) ;  /aran, 
to  fare  {= go  forth) ;  most  roots  are  the  expression  of  an  adjust- 
ment of  the  mind  and  vocal  organs  to  each  other,  according  to 
which  tlie  mind  in  a  certain  state  tends  to  put  the  vocal  organs  in 
a  given  state. 

The  diifusion  of  tlie  roots  and  radicles  through  all  the  Indo-European  lan- 
guages, and  their  perpetuation  from  the  earliest  ages  through  such  complete 
changes  of  the  superficial  appearance  of  these  languages,  shows  that  there 
must  be  some  stable  adjustment  of  mind  to  organs  in  this  family  of  nations. 
A  comparison  with  other  races  shows  that  it  is  an  extension  and  modification 
of  a  less  definite  adjustment  belonging  to  the  original  constitution  of  man. 

58.  A  Stem  is  that  part  of  a  noun  to  Avhich  the  historical  case- 
endings,  or  of  a  verb  to  which  the  personal  endings  and  tense 
signs  were  affixed.  Sometimes  it  is  a  root,  but  generally  it  is 
formed  from  the  root  by  one  or  more  relational  suffixes :  ■y/man, 
think>stem  man,  man;  -y/si/,  bear  >  stem  su-nu,  son;  -v//?//,  stem 
Ivfia  >  Ivfian,  to  love,  lufifjende,  lover.  For  case-endings,  see 
S  60. 


II.  CLASSIFICATION. 

59.  The  parts  of  speech  are  the  Noun  (Adjective),  Pronoun 
(Article,  Numeral),  Verb,  Adverb,  Preposition,  Conjunction,  and 
Interjection. 


III.   NOUNS. 

DECLENSIOX. 


GO.  A  noun  has  different  forms  (cases)  in  different  relations  in 
the  sentence.  The  variable  final  letters  of  a  noun  arc  its  case- 
endings  ;  the  rest  is  its  theme. 

61.  The  case-endings  in  Anglo-Saxon  mark  the  relations  of 

(1.)  Six  cases:  nominative,  genitive,  dative,  accusative,  vo- 
cative, instrumental. 

(2.)  Three  numbers:  singular  (one  object),  plural  (more 
than  one),  dual  (two). 


CASE-ENDINGS.  35 

(3.)  Three  genders :  masculine^  feminine,  neuter. 

62.  In  the  Parent  Speech  there  is  only  one  set  of  case-endings, 
as  follows : 

Singular.  Plcrai,.  Dual.  Englibu  Equivalent. 

Nominative ....        s       )  — Nominative   (no 

[      sas      "I  sign). 

Vocative (Stem))  (         .       — Nominative    In- 

[  dependent. 

Accusative am  ams     J  — Objective       (no 

sign). 

Genitive as  sains    J  — Possessive  's,  or 

(       „    ^  of  with  the  oh- 

(      ^^^  jective. 

Locative i  svas     J  — in  with  the  ob- 

jective. 

Dative ai     )  — to  or  for  with 

>■  bhjams  ^  the  objective. 

Ablative at     )  (       . ,      — from  or  out  of 

/  bhjams       with  objective. 
Instrumental  (1)        a       )     v^-uio     ]  )  by  or  with  with 

Instrumental  (2)     bhi     f  S    objective. 

63.  The  endings  are  formed  from  the  radicles  (^  56),  and  are  plainly  con- 
nected with  pronouns  and  prepositions  in  Sanskrit  and  other  languages. 

(a.)  The  nominative  s  is  connected  with  the  demonstrative  and  article ;  . 
Sanskrit  sa,  sd,  tat ;  Greek  6,  ■>),  t6  ;  Anglo-Saxon  se,  seo,  p&t.  It  is  us^d 
only  with  masculine  and  feminine  nouns,  and  is  a  quasi  article,  as  if,  in  An- 
glo-Saxon, se  cxjning  (the  king)  were  written  cyning-se^ cynings.  (For 
the  use  of  the  article  to  mark  a  subject,  see  Greek  Grammars  :  Crosby,  ^  487, 
4  ;  Hadley,  ^  535.)     A  neuter  t  (tat)  is  early  found. 

(6.)  The  accusative  ni  appears  in  the  Sanskrit  mdm,  ma,  me  ;  ama,  this, 
etc. ;  a  vivid  conception  of  any  suffering  object  is  expressed  by  the  same 
sound  which  is  used  for  one's  self  as  suffering  object. 

(c.)  The  genitive  s  is  connected  with  the  demonstrative  sa,  Anglo-Saxon 
se,  and  marks  personality  like  the  s  of  the  nominative.  The  prepositions 
and  adverbs  of  this  radicle  oftenest  mean  toith,  together:  Sanskrit  sahd, 
sam,  sa,  etc.,  corresponding  in  use  with  Greek  cvv,  Latin  con,  Anglo-Saxon 
ge.  So  the  genitive  s  marks  a  personal  adjunct,  then  any  adjunct.  The 
original  form  was  perhaps  5am,  which  shows  in  the  plural. 

(d.)  The  locative  i  appears  as  i}l  in  the  pronoun  (Sanskrit  tasm-in,  in 
that),  and  is  connected  with  the  preposition  in;  the  plural  svas  is  formed 
on  another  pronoun :  Sanskrit  sva,  Latin  se,  Greek  e,  self. 

(e.)  The  dative  ai  is  connected  with  abhi,  by,  as  appears  from  the  pro- 
noun, Sanskrit  tu-bhjam,  Latin  ti-hi,  to  thee,  and  from  the  plural  bhjams. 

(f.)  The  ablative  t  is  connected  with  the  demonstrative  ta,  the,  and  its 
force  in  prepositions  and  adverbs  may  be  seen  in  Sanskrit,  Gothic,  Anglo- 


36  rilONETIC  DECAY. 

Saxon  lit,  out  of;  the  Umbrian  tu,  to,  out  of;  Latin  -tus  (cu'liius,  from 
heaven).  Variations  of  the  dental  railicle  are  also  found  in  Latin  -de,  tinde, 
whence  ;  ijidc,  thence  ;  Greek  -Ow,  from,  etc. 

(g.)  The  instrumental  d  is  from  the  demonstrative  radicle  a,  and  bhi  from 
the  labial  radicle  :   Sanskrit  d/ii ;  Greek  -(pi ;  Anglo-Saxon  bi,  by  (^  63,  e). 

(A.)  The  plural  sign  is  s,  and  is  to  be  connected  in  sense  with  the  prepo- 
sition sam,  together  ivith,  mentioned  in  connection  with  the  genitive.  This 
is  strengthened  by  insertion  of  the  pronominal  am  in  the  genitive  sdms,  and 
tlve  dative  and  al)lative  hJijilms.     The  dual  is  a  lengthening  of  the  plural. 

(('.)  The  genitive  singular  and  nominative  plural  are  head-cases. 

04.  Phonetic  Decay. — Sounds  whose  meaning  is  not  vividly  felt 
come  under  the  influence  of  gravitation  {^  38)  :  they  weaken,  blend,  and  at 
last  slough  away.  When  tribes  speaking  diflerent  dialects  mix,  the  case- 
endings  are  half  caught,  and  decay  is  quickened.  By  this  process  the  Indo- 
European  languages  have  been  losing  their  inflections.  As  it  goes  on,  di- 
versity of  declension  arises,  two  causes  of  which  may  be  mentioned  : 

(1.)  Different  Endings  of  the  Stem. — Some  stems  end  in  a  vowel,  others 
in  a  consonant.  Under  the  operation  of  euphonic  laws  each  stem  has  its 
own  effect  on  the  endings.  The  Comparative  Grammars  discuss  the  effect 
of  many  different  stems  (Schleicher  gives  fifteen  sets  of  paradigms).  In  the 
Teutonic  languages  the  vowel  stems  have  held  the  original  case-endings 
most  firmly,  and  are  called  strong ;  the  stems  in  71  are  called  "weak  ;  other 
consonant  stems  conform  (^  40),  or  are  irregular. 

(•2.)  Gender. — (a.)  Names  applied  to  females  use  long  vowels  and  liquids; 
they  melt  away  the  strong  consonant  endings,  and  attain  vowel  or  liquid  end- 
ings. Again,  all  words  having  such  endings  tend  to  assume  the  habits  of  fem- 
inine names  throughout,  and  become  grammatically  of  the  feminine  gender. 

(5.)  The  separation  of  neuter  from  masculine  is  not  so  thorough-going. 
No  special  form  is  needed  to  distinguish  inanimate  things  as  acting,  or  as  ad- 
dressed ;  hence  the  nominative  and  vocative  are  not  distinguished  from  the 
accusative.  We  take  inanimate  things  in  the  lump;  hence  neuters  tend  to 
use  no  plural  sign,  or  to  use  an  ending  like  the  feminine  singular,  as  an  ab- 
stract or  collective  form  :  Greek,  Latin,  -a ;  Anglo-Saxon,  -?/,  etc.  Latin 
neuters  plural  frequently  become  feminine  singular  in  the  Romance  lan- 
guages ;  Greek  neuters  plural  take  a  singular  verb.  The  neuter  is  a  mascu- 
line with  the  activity  out ;  the  Sanskrit  grammarians  call  it  /dtva,  eunuch. 

(c.)  Gender  has  two  aspects  :  (1)  it  represents  a  tendency  to  use  different 
sounds  for  relations  to  males  from  those  used  for  similar  relations  to  females, 
or  to  inanimate  things ;  (2)  it  represents  the  tendency  to  couple  together 
words  (nouns,  adjectives,  and  pronouns)  agreeing  in  their  terminations. 
From  the  first  point  of  view  there  can  be  but  three  genders ;  many  lan- 
guages have  but  two  ;  some  have  none.  From  the  second  point  of  view 
there  may  be  as  many  genders  as  there  are  sets  of  terminations ;  some  lan- 
guages have  none;  some,  e.g.,  the  Congoes  and  Caffirs,  have  many. 

(d.)  There  was  originally  no  sound  as  a  sign  of  gender  in  the  Indo-Euro- 
pean Pareot  Speech.    It  is  denoted,  however,  in  the  earliest  remams  by  long 


DECLENSIONS— RULES  FOE  GENDER.         37 

vowels,  especially  d,Jd'^i,  for  feminine  nouns;  by  -t  in  the  nominative  for 
some  neuters,  and  indirectly  by  other  case-endings.  It  has  been  a  constant 
force,  showing  itself  more  and  more  through  all  the  changes  of  the  language, 
and  in  the  Anglo-Saxon  affords  a  natural  subdivision  of  the  case-endings. 

Go.  There  are  two  classes  of  Declensions  of  Anglo-Saxon  nouns : 

(1.)  Strong:  those  which  have  sprung  from  vowel  stems. 

(2.)  Weak :  that  which  has  sprung  from  stems  in  an. 

There  are  four  declensions  distinguished  by  the  endings  of  the 
Genitive  Singular : 

Declension  1 .  Declension  2.  Declension  3.  Declension  4. 

es  e  a  an 

6  6.   SUMMARY    OF   C  AS  E  -  E  NDI  N  G  S. 

Strong.  Weak. 


Decl.  I. 
Masc.    'Sent.   JIasc.   Neut. 


Decl.  II. 
Feminine. 


Deou  III. 
Masc.   Fem. 


Decl.  IV. 

Masc.   Fem.   Neut. 


e 

e 

a 

an 

an 

an 

e 

e 

a 

an 

an 

an 

u,  e 

e>- 

u 

an 

an 

e 

e 

e 

a 

an 

an 

an 

a,  e 

e,  a 

u 

0,  a 

an 

a, 

eua 

a 

ena 

ena 

um 

um 

um 

Stem a  a  ia  ia 

Singular. — 

N.&V. -  -  e  e 

Gen es  es  es  es 

Dat e  e  e  e 

Ace -  -  e  e 

Inst ? u  e  o  e 

Plural. — 

N.,  A.,&  V.  as  u  as  u 

Gen a  a  a  a 

D.&  Inst....  um  um  um  um 

A  few  masculines  of  Decl.  1st  have  some  forms  from  i-stcms  or  u-stems, 
^^  86, 93. 

67.  Gender.  General  rules.  For  particulars,  see  §§  268- 
270. 

1.  Strong  nouns.  All  masculines  are  of  the  first  or  third 
declension  ;  all  feminiues  of  the  second  or  third ;  all  neuters  of 
the  first. 

2.  Abstract  JVoicns  have  their  gender  governed  by  the  term- 
inations.    In  derivatives  the  feminine  gender  prevails. 

3.  Compound  JVbuns  follow  the  gender  of  the  last  part. 

4.  Masculine  are  names  of  males ;  of  the  moon  ;  of  many  weeds,  flow- 
ers, winds;  man,  guma,  man;  veland;  mono,  moon;  mpar,  horse;  porn, 
thorn;  blostma, hXossom.;  />i«(/, wind. 

5.  Feminine  are  names  of  females ;  of  the  sun ;  of  many  trees,  rivers, 
soft  and  low  musical  instruments  :  r/^c«,  queen;  cii,  cow  ;  JElf-pryde  ;  sunnu, 
sunne,  sun  ;  dc,  oak  ;  Danubic,  Danube  ;  hpistlc,  whistle  ;  ficarpe,  harp. 


38  DECLENSION  FIRST.— A-STEMS. 

6.  Neuter  are  names  of  wife,  child  ;  diminutives  ;  many  general  names ; 
and  words  made  an  object  of  thought :  pif,  wife  ;  beam,  cild,  child  ;  mxgdcn, 
maiden;  gr;rs,  grsiss  ;  ofct,  fimi;  corn,  corn  ;  ^oW,  gold. 

7.  Epicene  Nouns  have  one  grammatical  gender,  but  are  used  for  both 
sexes.  Such  names  of  mammalia  are  masculine,  except  of  a  few  little  timid 
ones :  nius.,  mouse  (feminine) ;  large  and  fierce  birds  are  masculine  ;  others 
feminine,  especially  singing  birds  :  nihtegale,  nightingale  ;  large  fishes  are 
masculine,  small  feminine  ;  insects  are  feminine. 

G8,  Cases  alike. — (l.)  The  nominative  and  vocative  are  al- 
ways alike. 

(2.)  The  nominative,  accusative,  and  vocative  are  alike  in  all 
plurals,  and  in  the  singular  of  all  neuters  and  strong  masculines. 

(^3.)  The  genitive  plural  ends  always  in  a  or  ena. 

(4).  The  dative  and  instrumental  plural  end  always  in  um 
{on).    The  instrumentals  are  etymologically  datives,  except  -^,  -p. 

DECLENSION  I. 

Stem  in  a.     Genitive  singular  in  es. 

69.  Here  belong  Masculines, — monosyllables,  derivatives  in 
I,  m,  w,  r,p^u^o,  els,  rd,  d,  d,  t,  nd,  st,  oc,  /i,  w^,  e,  ere  /  Neu- 
ters,— monosyllables,  often  wuth  be-  or  ge-  prefixed,  derivatives 
in  I,  n,  r,pytiyo,  d,  t,  h,  e,  incle. 

TO. — I.  Case-endings  from  stem  a -{-relational  suffixes.  Nom- 
inative in  — . 

Masculine.  Neuter. 

Stem. pulfa, loolf.  scipa, ship. 

Theme pulf.  scip. 

Singular. — 

Nominative  . .  pulf,            a  wolf.  scip. 

Genitive pulfes,     of  a  toolf  wolfs.  scipes. 

Dative pulfe,       to  or  for  a  icolf  scipe. 

Accusative ....   pulf,            a  xoolf.  scip. 

Vocative pulf,            0,  loolf  scip. 

Instrumental. .       pulf^,      hy  or  with  a  wolf  scipe. 
Plural. — 

Nominative  . .  pulfas,        loolves.  scipw. 

Genitive pulft?,      of  icolves.  scipa. 

Dative pulfton,  to  or  for  wolves.  scip^^??^. 

Accusative  . .  .  pulfas,        evolves.  scip'?^ 

Vocative -puiMs,        0,  evolves.  sciipu. 

Instrumental. .       -piilfum,  hy  or  with  icolves.  scipww. 


COMPARATIVE  ETYMOLOGY.  39 

Sanskrit.  Greek.  Latin.  Gothic.  Old  Saxon.  Old  Norse. 

jj                       (  a9va,  'iTTTro,  equo,  vulfa,  wulfa,  ulfa, 

\ho7-se.  horse.  horse.  wolf.  wolf.  wolf. 
Singular. — 

Nominative..      a9va-s  'iTriro-g  equu-s  vulf-s  wulf  ulf-r 

(iTTTTo-to  )            ^  „  f -wulba-s  ) 

Genitive 49va-sja  "^  ..;r7rov  >      ^*1"'  ^"^^'^  1  wulbe-s   f  "^^"^ 

Dative a9va-j-a  Vn-Tri^  equo  vulfa  wulba,  e  ulfi 

Accusative...     d9va-ni  'iinro-v  equu-m  vulf  wulf  ulf 

Vocative a9va  'iTrire  eque  vulf  {Xomiii.)  (Xomin.) 

Instrumental      a9va  'nnTo-ipi  {Ablat.)  {Dative.)  wulbu  (^Dative.) 
Plukal. — 

Nominative..    a9va-sas  'iinro-i  equ  (e-i-s),  i  vulfo-s  ■\vulbo-s,  u-s  ulfa-r 

Genitive a9va-n-ara      'iTnrujv  \  ^^^^'^    |       vulfe         wulbo,  a  ulfa 

(.equo-rum  (ulfu-m 

Dative..; a9ve-bhjas    (Locat.)        equi-s  vulfa-m    -wulbo-n,  u-n     1    „„ 

Accusative...    a9va-n(s)     'iTriro-vg        equos  vulfa-ns    wulfo-s,  a-s         ulfa 

The  Old  High  German  has  wulf,  wulfes,  wulfa,  wulf,  tvulfu  ;  wulf  a,  wulfo, 
tvulfum,  wulfd.     The   Old   Friesic  ha.s  fisk,fsk-is  {-es),fisk-a  (-i, -e), 
fisk;  fisk-ar  {-a),  fiska,  fisk-um  {-on,  -em),fisk-ar  {-a). 
For  Parent  speech,  add  the  endings  in  §  62  to  the  stem. 

71.  Changes  in  Endings,  ^^  38,  G4.  (a.)  The  stem-vowel  -a  in  Gothic 
"and  Anglo-Saxon  does  not  blend  with  the  terminations  as  in  Latin  and  Greek, 
but  drops.  This  declension  is  thus  become  analogous  to  the  Latin  and  Greek 
consonant  declension  (Third)  ;  compare  the  singular  genitive  and  plural 
nominative,  and  see  ttoiihv,  homcn,  ^  95,  a,  and  proper  names,  ^  101,  b. 

(b.)  Case-endings.     For  original  forms,  see  ^  62. 

Singular. — Nominative  -s  is  weathered,  ^^  62,  64.  Genitive  -a5>-e5, 
precession,  ^  38.  Dative  -ai>-a>-e,  precession,  i^  38 ;  sometimes  -e>  — ; 
hcim,  home  ;  dieg,  day.  Accusative  -flm>  — ,  ^^  62,  64.  Instrumental 
-a>e,  §  18,  or  a-bhi^  Lithuanic,  Slavonic  -a-mi>  O.  H.  G.  -u,  Goth,  e 
(in  five,  sve,pe,  hvadre,  etc.)>  A.  S.  -e,  ^^  62,  63,  251,  IL,  b. 

Plural. — Nominative  a-s{a)s^  -as  has  farther  precession  to  -a5>  -e5>  -s 
in  late  A. -Saxon  and  English.  Genitive  -{s)d7n{s)^  -a,  ^  64.  Dative 
-bhja(m)sy  -mjas'^  -mus^  -mr\>  -m;  bh'ym  nasalizing  the  labial  as  in 
Lith.  and  Slav,  -mus,  -mu  ;  -ani^  -urn,  labial  assimilation,  ^  35,  2,  a ;  pre- 
cession to  -on,  -en  is  found.  Accusative  -ans'^  -as,  compensation,  ^  37. 
(c.)  This  declension  has  best  preserved  the  original  case-endings,  and  has 

transmitted  to  English  the  possessive  and  plural  signs. 

72.  Neuters  differ  from  masculines  in  this  declension  in  having  no  proper 
plural  sign,  ^  64.  Their  plural  ending  is  -a  in  Sanskrit,  Greek,  Latin,  and 
Gothic  ;  -u  in  O.  Sax.,0.  Fries.,  and  A. -Sax. ;  —  in  0.  H.  Gcr.  and  O.  Nor. 

(a.)  The  earlier  -a  is  sometimes  found  in  A. -Sax.  (North.) ;  -o  is  com- 
mon ;  sometimes  the  -u  drops,  precession,  §  38  ;  fidera  (w),  wings ;  brimo  (?/), 
waters  ;  gebcdu,  gcbcd,  prayers.     For  -ra,  -ru,  in  trgra,  eggs,  see  §  82. 


40 


STRONG  NOUNS.— DECLENSION  I. 


73.  STRONG   N  OU  NS.— DEC  LENSION  I. 


2.  Long  monosyllables. 
Stem  ....  porda,  n. 

word. 
Theme . .  .  pord 
Singular. — 
iV.,A.,cJ-  V.  pord 

Gen pordes 

Dat porde 

Inst porde 

Plural. — 
N.,A.,<SfV.  pord 

Gen pordk 

D.  <5f  Inst...  pordam 


3.  Shifting. 
daga,  m.  fata,  n. 
(lay.  vat. 


dlPi: 


fvt 


divg  fxt 

da'ges  fxtes 

dage  fivte 

dcTge  fxte 

dagks  fatn 

dagk  fatk 

dagMm  fatum 


4.  U-umlaut. 
hlida,  n. 
slope. 
/did 

hlid 
hlides 
hlide 
hlide 

hlcodn  (-Z-) 
hleodk  {-i-) 
hleodam  (-t-) 


5.  Gemination. 

torra,  m.  spella,  n. 

tower.  speech. 

tor  spel 

tor  spel 

torres  spelles 

torre  spelle 

torre  spelle 

tori'as  spel 

torrk  spellk 

torram  spellum 


6.  Syncope. 

Stem tungola,  m.  tungola,  n. 

star.  star. 

Theme. . .    tungol  tungol 

Singular. — 
N.,A.,dfV.   tung-ol,-ul,.el,-l 

Gen tung-oles,  -ules,  -eles,  -les 

I^al tung-ole,  -ule,  -ele,  -le 

Inst tung-ole,  -ule,  -ele,  -le 

Plural. — 

N    A    (i-V  i^'  ''""o"^^^^'  -w^as,  -elks,  -Iks 
^  •■>     •> 'J      '\n.  timg-ola, -ol, -ul, -el, -I 

Gen tung-olk,  -ulk,  -elk,  -Ik 

D.  (5f  I. tung-olnm,  -ulum,  -elnm,  -Zum 


7.  Stem  in 

-ga. 
bedga,  m. 
ring. 
beag 

hed{g),  h 
hedges 
beage 
hedge 

bedgks 

bedgk 
bedmum 


8.  Stem  in  -ha. 

mearha,  m.  hoJia,  m. 
horse.  hough. 

mearh  hoh 

mear{h),g,-  hoh,  ho 
meares  has 

meare  ho 

meare  ho 


mearas 


meara 
mearum 


hos 

hok 
houm 


9.  Stem  in  -pa. 
Stem  ....  hearpa,  m.,  grove. 
Theme.  • .  beam 
Singular. — 
N.,A.,  6f  V.  bear-u,  -o 

Gen bear-pes,-upes,-opes,-epes 

Dat bear-pe,  -upe,  -ope,  -epe 

Inst bear-pe,  -upe,  -ope,  -epe 

Plural. — 
N.,A.,dfV.  bear-pks,-upks,-opks,-epks 

Gen bear-pk,  -upk,  -opk,  -epk 

D.  df  I. bear-pnm,   -upum,   -opam, 

-epnm 


cncopa,  n.,knee. 
cneop 

cneop,  cneo 
cneo-pes,  -s 
cneo-pe,  — 
cneo-pe,  — 

cneo-pv,  -p,  - 
cneo-pk,  cned 
cneo-pnm,  -um,  -i 


10.  Stem+er. 
wga,  egg. 
Beg,  plur.  wgcr 


wg 

xges 

aisre 


mg-er-u,  -ru 
wg-er-k,  -xk 
^g-er-Mxa,  -rum 


STRONG  NOUNS.— DECLENSION  I.  41 

^4.  (1.  Common  forms.)  Like />z<//decline  strong  masculines  not  here- 
after otherwise  described  :  ad,  oath  ;  diel,  part ;  stdn,  stone  ;  cyning,  king  ; 
recels,  frankincense  ;  hlaford,  lord  ;  snap,  snow,  etc.  Like  scip  decline 
strong  neuters  not  hereafter  otherwise  described  :  col,  coal ;  dor,  door ;  gcat, 
gate  ;  gebod,  bebod,  bidding  ;  gebed,  prayer  ;  gebrec,  crash  ;  gemet,  measure  ; 
gefeoht,  fight,  etc. 

(a.)  Derivatives  in  -orf,  -ed,  -els  sometimes  drop  plural  -as:  monad,  months;  hxlcd, 
heroes ;  fxtels,  bags ;  so  those  in  -r  and  -nd,  §§  8T,  100. 
(6.)  For  datives  in  -d,  genitives  in  ^end,  see  §§  93,  94,  8S,  c. 

(c.)  Stem  -e-  is  sometimes  inserted  conforming  with  stems  in  -ia:  flsceds<^fiscds, 
fishes,  5  85. 

(d.)  Themes  in  -sc  may  suffer  metathesis,  especially  in  the  plural :  fisc,  fiscds^fixds, 
fishes ;  tusc,  tuxds,  tusks,  §  51. 

75.  (2.  Long  monosyllables,  neuter,  ^  37,  3.)  Like  pord  decline  neu- 
ter monosyllables  long  by  nature  or  position  :  ban,  bone  ;  beam,  infant ;  fyr, 
fire;  god,  good;  ^or5,  horse  ;  leaf,  leaf;  lead,  song;  speord,  sword;  p'lf, 
wife,  etc. 

76.  (3.  Shifting,  ^^  23,  41.)     Like  dxg  or  fist  decline  monosyllables 

with  root  s:<Ca : — masculine  crwft,  craft ;  gxst,  guest ;  hpxl,  whale  ;  nueg, 

son  ;   pxd,  path  ;    sta'f,  staff; — neuter  bxc,  back  ;    bxd,  bath  ;  fxc,  space  ; 

frxd,  fringe  ;  blxd,  blade  ;  crxt,  cart. 

(a.)  The  shifting  of  a  to  a;  is  stopped  in  the  plural  by  the  assimilating  force  of  the 
doTU  of  the  ending,  §  35,  1. 

77.  (4.  U-umlaut,  ^  32,  3).  Like  Mid  decline  brim,  water;  gehlid, 
inclosure  ;  //m,limb,  etc.     This  umlaut  is  only  occasional. 

78.  (5.  Gemination,  ^  27,  5.)  Stems  having  gemination  simplify  it 
according  to  Rule  13,  ^  20  ;  bil,  billes,  ax,  etc. 

79.  (6.  Syncope,  ^  46,  37.)  Syncopated  may  be  words  ending  in  an 
unaccented  short  vowel  before  a  single  consonant : — masculine  engel,  angel ; 
caldor,  elder;  dryhten,  lord;  munad,  month;  heorot,  stag,  etc.;  —  neuter 
selel,  throne  ;  yfel,  evil ;  bedcen,  sign  ;  tdcen,  token  ;  leder,  leather ;  pundor, 
wonder,  etc. ; — masc.  and  neut.  heafod,,  head  ;  segen,  sign,  etc. 

80.  (7-8.  Stems  in  -ga  and  -ha.)  For  g'^h  and  h^g,  see  ^^  il,o,b, 
118.  For  ecthlipsis  of  h,  see  ^  47.  For  contraction  hods'yhos,  see  ^  52. 
Like  mearh  decline /eo?7i,  plur.  neut./eo?-A,  beings,  etc.  Like  hoh  decline 
fcoh,  n.  fee,  pi.  n.  fco  ;  hreoh,  pleoh,  etc.  ;  and  with  a  similar  contraction, 
stems  in  a  long  vowel :  ed,  eds,  river ;  sx,  sxs,  sea,  etc.     See  ^  100. 

81.  (9.  Stems  in  -pa.)    Like  beam  decline  ealu,  n.,  ale  ;  mealu,  n.,  meal , 

etc.     Like  cnedp  decline  treop,  n.,  tree  ;  Jjeup,  m.,  servant,  etc. 

(a).  After  a  consonant  p  final  shifts  to  m>o,-  and  before  a  vowel  may  have  quasi- 
gemination  in  up;  this  u  may  then  have  precession  to  o>c.  Similar  arc  Sanskrit 
minaves<jsunu,  son ;   O.  II.  Ger.  palaives<Cpalu,  bale. 

82.  (10.)  Stems  strengthened  by  -er,  ^  228.)  Like  ,7'^  decline  ccalf, 
calf;  did,  child  ;  lamb,  lamb. 

(a.)  A  similar  interchange  of  stem  -a  with  -era  is  found  in  0. 11.  Ger.  -ira,  kclb,  kdh- 
ir,  calf,  O.  Fris.  kind-er-a,  children,  horn-ar,  horns.  The  -cr  sometimes  comes  into  the 
singular :  lamhcr,  a  lamb. 


42 


STRONG  NOUNS.— DECLENSION  I. 


83. — II.  Case -endings   from 
stem  -ia-(- relational  suffixes. 

Stem  .  hirdia,  m., 

shepherd. 
Theme  bird. 

Singular. — 
N'om.    hirde 
Gen. . .       hirdes 
Dat...       hirde 
Ace...  hirde 
Yoc. . .  liirde 
Inst...       Inrdtf 

Plural. — 

]Vb)7i.    birdas  rici^ 

Gen. . .       h'lvdd  ricd 

Dat. . .       hirdztm  ricicm 

Ace. . .  h'lvdds  ricu 

Vbc. . .  hirdas  ricii 

Inst. . .       hxvdium  ricum 


ricia,  u., 
realm. 
ric. 


nee 
rices 
vice 

rice 

rice 
rice 


84. — III.  Case -endings   from 
stem  -i+ relational  suffixes. 

byri,  m.,    foti,  m.,       mani,  m., 
son.  foot.  man. 

byr  fot  man 

byre  fOt               man 

byres  fotes            mannes 

byre  fet,  fote      men 

byi*e  fut              man 

byre  fot              man 

byre  fet,  fot^      men. 

byre,  -as    fet,  fot<^s  men 
byra          fotf^  manntJ 

\>yvuin       ioiuni         mannt«?2 

byre,  -as    fet,  fotas  men 

byre,  -as    fet,  fotas  men 

hyi'um       fotiim         mauman 


S3,  a.  Latin,  O.  Lat.  Gothic.  Gothic.  Gothic.         O.  Sax.  O.  Norse. 

Stemfilio,  m.,  harja,  ni.,  hairdja,  in.,  kunja,  n.,  hirdja,  m.,  herja,  m., 

son.  army.  shepherd.  land.  shepJierd.  army. 

Sing. — 

A'^07n....filiu-s,  fili(s)  harji-s  hairdei-s  kuni  hlrdi  her-r 

Cere.  ...  fllii,  fili  harji-s  hairdei-s  kunji-s  hird-je-s, -eas  her-s 

Dat filio  harja  hairdja  kunja  hird-je, -ea  her-i 

Ace fili-um,fili-m  hari  hairdi  kuni  hirdi  her 

Voc fili  hari  liairdi  kuni  hirdi  

Inst..... hirdju  

Plural. — 

N.^-V.iiVii  harjo-s  hairjo-s  kunja  hird-jo-s(neut.-i)herja-r 

Gen filiorum,  filium  harje  hairdje  kunjc  hird-j6, -eo  herja 

D.  <^  T..  filiis  harja-m  hairdja-m  Icunja-m  hird-ju-n  herju-m 

Ace filios  harja-ns  hairdja-ns  kunja  hird-j6-s(neut.-i)  herja 

When  a  single  short  syllable  precedes  the  stem  -ja,  Gothic  masculines 
follow  harja,  otherwise  hairdja.  The  O.  H.  German  has  hirti,  hirtes,  hirta, 
hirti,  hirtu  ;  hirta,  hirlb,  hirtum,  hirtd  ;  neuter  kunni,  kunnies  (kunnes), 
kunnje  (kunne),  kunni,  kunnjn  {kunnu) ;  kunni,  kunnjo  {kunneo,  kunno). 
kunnjum  (kunnum),  kunni.  The  O.  Friesic  retains  of  this  declension  only 
a  nominative  e<^ja.     For  changes  in  endings,  see  ^^  71,  72,  85. 

81,  a.  The  comparative  grammar  of  the  i-stems  is  reserved  for  the  fem- 
inine forms,  ^^  88,  89.     The  plural  -as  conforms  with  the  a-stems. 


STEMS  IN  lA,  R,  ND.  43 

85.  {Stem  ill  ia.) — Like  hirde  decline  masculines  in  -e  and  -ere: 
bere^  barley ;  ele,  oil ;  ege^  awe ;  ende,  end ;  mece^  sword ;  spenge^ 
sponge ;  freond-scipe^  friendship ;  fiscere^  fisher ;  hiintere,  hunter. 

Like  rice  decline  strong  neuters  in  -e  and  diminutives  in  -incle : 
ptfe,  punishment ;  yrfe,  heritage ;  lidincle^  a  little  joint ;  rdpinde, 
a  little  rope,  etc.  Most  neuters  originally  in  ia  conform  with 
pord^  or  are  now  masculine. 

(a.)  The  -e  of  the  singular  nominative,  accusative,  and  vocative  is  by 
precession  from  -ia.  In  the  earlier  forms  a  stem  -e<^-i  is  occasionally 
found  elsewhere  :  hirdeds'^hirdds,  hirded'^hirdd,  hirdeuni^hirdum ;  me- 
ced'^mecd,  etc.  The  i  has  sometimes  a  quasi  -  gemination  to  ig,  ige,  the 
g  or  ge  representing  an  opening  of  the  organs  from  the  z-position  {^  28,  2 ; 
27,  5) :  here  (Gothic  harjis),  herigds,  herigeds,  hergds,  etc.,  hosts. 

{b.)  Many  words  originally  in  -ia,  which  have  dropped  the  nominative  -e, 
and  a-re  declined  like  pulf,  are  seen  to  have  i-umlaut  or  other  assimilation 
when  compared  with  other  languages :  rec<^rece  (Old  H.  German  rouch), 
smoke;  so  some  i-stems  :  gxst,  gest,  gyst,  gist ;  t^Iwx.  gystds,giestds,  etc.; 
gastd,  etc.,  guest  (Gothic  gasts;  plur.  gasteis,  ^  89). 

86.  {Stem  in  i.  §§  89-91.) — Few  remains  are  found  of  mascu- 
lines in -2.  Byre;  i^Ye,  bite;  c?ry;-<j, fall ;  Ae^e,  hate;  se/e,  hall,  oc- 
cur ;  cyme.,  coming,  has  a  plural ;  some  2«-stems  conform  :  pine., 
friend ;  hsele.,  man ;  hyge.,  mind ;  mere.,  sea.  Like  byre  decline 
leode.,  men,  and  compounds  of  pare  (called  by  Grein  fem.  plur. 
of  leod,  people, />an<,  state,  but  which  seem  quasi-adjectives  like 
Latin  liomani) :  burhpare,  citizens ;  Cantpare.,  Kentish  folks  ; 
names  of  peoples :  Dene.,  Danes ;  Romdne.,  Romans. 

Umlaut. — \SkQf6t  decline  tod.,  tooth;  and  see  §  91. 

87.  {Stems  in  -r  and  -nd.) 

Singular. —  r-stem.  nd-stem. 

iVbm.,^.,  &  y.  brodor.  feond. 

Gen brodor.  feondes. 

Dat.  &  Inst. . . .  breder.  feonde. 
Plural. — 

iVow.,A,cfiK  brodru,  brodor.  fjmd,  feond, -as. 

Gen brodra.  feonda. 

Dat.  &  Inst... .  brodrum.  feOndum. 

The  changes  6  to  e,  a  to  e,  and  eo  to  ^,  are  i-umlaut  concealed.  ^  32, 2. 
These  irregulars  conform  to  the  i-stems.    ^  91,  4,  5.     For  others,  sec  ^  100. 

The  Gothic  has  hropar,  brupr-s,  bropr,  bropar ;  plur.  (like  w-stems)  brup- 
ju-s,  bropr-e,  br6])r-u-m,  broJ)r-u-ns.  The  other  Teutonic  tongues  show  pe- 
culiar forms  (often  undeclined)  in  their  r-  and  nc^-stems.     See  ^  100,/. 


44 


DECLENSION  II.  (FEMININES). 


Stem  in  a  or  i.      Genitive  sinsjular  in  e. 


88.  —  I,  Case  -  endings    iVoni 
stem  a+i'elational  siiflixes. 

Stem ....  gifd,  gift. 

Theme..  .  gif. 

SiNGULAU. — 

Nominative .  .  gift<. 

Genitive gife. 

Dative gif(2. 

Accusative . .  .  gift«,  gifc. 

Vocative gifu. 

Instrumental .  gife. 
Plural. — 
Nominative . 
Genitive . . 
Dative. .  . . 
Accusative . . 

Vocative gif<^5  gif"^' 

Instrumen  tal. .  ^\^um. 


gif«,  gifc. 

gifa,  gifoul 

gif<«7?. 
gifcl,  gife 


II. — Case-endings  from   stem 
i-j- relational  suffixes, 
dfedi,  deed. 
dffid. 

djed. 

dffide. 

dffide. 
dffid,  dffide. 
dffid. 

dsede. 

d&de,  d£ed(^. 

dffid(^. 

d^d^^??^. 
d&de,  d&dd 
d&de,  dffidd 

()ih^um. 


88.— 1  (a). 


Stem. 


S.inskrit. 
mare. 


Singular. — 
Nominative . 


Greek. 


X(opa 


Genitive a9va-j-as       xil)pa-Q  - 


Latin, 
equa, 

mare. 

cqua 
r  equa-es  ~i 


Gothic, 
giba, 

o\ft. 

friba 


Old  Saxon. 


Dative. 


Accusative... 

Vocative 

Instrumental 
Plural. — 

Nominative.. 
Genitive 


a9vai 

a9va-j-ai 

a9va-m 

a9ve 

afiva-j-a. 


f    a9va-sas 

(      a9va-s 

(     a9va-m 


Xojpcf 

Xiopa-v 
Xiopa 
iDat.) 


equa-i 
equae  ) 
equai  | 
equEB    ) 

equa-m 
equa 

(Ablat.) 


,'   gibo-s 


X^ipc 


(     equa3 
(    equa-s 


i-m    ) 
(  a9va-n-am  ) 

Dative a9va-blijas 

Accusative . . .         a9va-s 


X^jpiov      equa-rura 


gibai 

giba 
giba 
(Dat.) 


gibo-s 
gibo 


ff'/f. 

geba 

gcibo    > 
geba    ) 

gebo  ) 
gebu  ) 
geba 
(Nomin.') 
(^Dative.') 

geba 
gcbo-n-6 


Old  Norse. 
giafa, 

giof 
giafa-r 

gi6f(u) 

giof 
(Nomin.") 
{Dative.') 

giafa-r 
fjiafa 


/  r       ,  N    (  equa-bus ")      .,  « 
{Locat.)  <     '■  ]-  gibo-m 

(     equis     ) 

gibo-s 


(  gebu-n     f  giofu-m 

(  gcbo-n     (  giofo-m 

Xwpa-c        equa-s         giDo-s  geba  giafa-r 

The  Old  High  German  ha.s  geba,  gebu  (a),  gebo  (u),  geba, geba  ;  gebo  (a), 
gebdn6,gcbum,gcb6  (a).  The  0.  Friesic  has  sing.jeve;  ]^\uT.jeva,jevend 
(jevd),jevum  {on),jcva. 


STRONG  FEMININES.  45 

(b.)  To  the  1st  class  belong  all  femiuiues  in  v.  They  are  few : 
J^aru,  journey ;  hffu,  love ;  sceaniu,  shame  ;  scolu,  school ;  pracu, 
revenge  j  compounds  in  -paru  {burh-partc,  state,  etc.). 

(c.)  For  the  Parent  Speech,  add  the  endings  in  §  62  to  the  stem.  Grav- 
itation has  carried  away  all  the  consonants  from  the  Anglo-Saxon  case-end- 
ings except  the  m  of  the  dative  plural,  which  is  a  nasalizing  of  the  original  bh 
(^  71,  b) ;  n  in  gifend  is  euphonic  epenthesis  (^  50),  as  in  Sanskrit,  a  con- 
formation with  the  weak  form  in  an ;  m  in  gifum  (gifdm)  assimilates  the  a 
(^  35,  2,  a).  The  plural  -a  suffered  precession  in  late  Anglo-Saxon  to  -a, 
then  to  -e,  which  in  English  drops.  The  original  -d  is  retained  in  the  para- 
digms as  the  classic  sound. 

{d.)  Plural  -e  is  a  conformation  with  the  ^-stems,  influenced  also  perhaps 
by  the  Latin.     In  the  sixth  century,  Latin  «=e ;  -m,  -s  were  silent. 

(e.)  Root  a  sometimes  suffers  shifting  to  a?,  or  even  i-umlaut  to  e,  before 
-e  :  5acu,  strife,  genitive  saece ;  pracu,  revenge,  da,ti\e  prace,prxce,precc, 
etc.     1^^41,32. 

(/.)  Here  also  are  placed  nouns  in  -o<[-?<  undeclinable  in  the  singular, 
from  adjectives  :  yld-u,  -o,  -e  (eld,  age),  plur.  yldu,  -o,  -e,  yldd,  yldum ;  plural 
nom.  and  ace.  in  d  is  found  :  yldd  (Grein),yrmrfff,  miseries.  So  ar^c/o,  nobil- 
ity ;  briido,  breadth,  etc.  The  plural  is  rare.  Similar  words  in  Gothic  are 
weak  :  manag-eins  (multitude),  -em,  -ein,  -ei,  plur.  manag-cins,  -eino,  -eim, 
-eins.  O.  H.  German  has  -in  for  -ein;  0.  Saxon  has  strong  forms.  The 
A. -Saxon  words  conform  with  the  a-stems.     ^  40,  \. 

{g.)  For  duru,  door  ;  »,  law  ;  beo,  bee  ;  ed,  river ;  sx,  sea  ;  forms  from 
fa-stems,  etc.,  see  ^  100  ;  for  Northumbrian  forms,  see  page  49. 

89.— (88,  II.)     Stem  in  i. 

S.anskrit.  Greek.  Latin.  Gothic.  Old  Saxon.  Old  Norse. 

(      ^vi,  off,  ovi,  anstai,  ansti,  asti, 

t    slieep.  sheep.  sheep.  love.  love.  love. 

Singular. — 

Nom uvi-3  ofi-c  ovi-s  anst-s  anst  ast 

CJen avj-as  opt-oc  ovi-s  anstai-s  ansti,  ensti  ast-ar 

Dat iivj-ai  Loc.o^t-i  Loc.oyi  anstai  ansti,  ensti  ast-ti 

Ace avi-m  iipi-v  ove-m  anst  anst  ast 

Voc .T.v6  oFi  OVom)  anst  (iVb/re.)  (A'oot.) 

Inst avj-a  (Dalive.)  Abl.  oviid)  {Datiie.}  (Dative.)  {Dative.) 

Plukal. — 

Nom.&Voc.      dvaj-as  ufi-fc  ovi-s  anstci-s  ansti,  ensti  asti-r 

Gen avi-n-am  vfi-wv  ovi-um  ansto  anstjo,  enste-u  ast-a 

Dat avi-bhjas  ioc.  of i-fft    ovi-bus  ansti-m  anstju-n,  enstju-n    ast-um 

Ace avi-s  opt-ac  ovu-s  ansti-ns  ansti,  ensti  asti 

The  O,  High  German  has  anst,  ensti  anst,  ensti  anst,  anst ;  ensti,  enstj-o 
ensteo,  ensti-m,  ensti.  The  Old  Friesic  has  ned,  nede,  ncdc,  nede;  neda, 
ncda,  ncd-d,  nedi-m<Cnedcm,  -urn,  -on,  neda.  Masc.  and  neut.  /-stems  were 
common  in  the  older  tongues ;  but  few  masc.  survive  in  A. -Sax.   ^^  64,  d ;  86. 


40 


DECLENSION  II.— I-STEMS. 


90, — II.  Case-endings  <  stem  i  +  rel.  suffixes 

1.  diiid'i,  deed.     2.  pynni,/*<«i. 
died.  pynn. 


Stem , . 

Theme 

Singular. — 

JVbm.  .  . 

Ge?2.  .  .  . 

Dat.  . 

Ace.  . 

Voc.  . 
Inst. . 

Plural. 
N'om. 
Gen.  . 
Bat.  . 
Ace.  . 
Voc.  . 
Inst.  . 


Nominative  in  — . 

3.  beadpi,  battle. 
beadp  (u,  o),  bcadup. 


died. 

djede. 

dffidc. 
daid, 
dffide. 
d&d. 

d^de. 


j  daid,  j 

I  dffide.  ( 


dffide  {a). 
dffidft 
dffidt^m. 

d^de  (d). 

d&de  («). 


pyn.  beadu  (o). 

pynne.  beadpe,  beadupe. 

pynne.  beadpe,  beadupe. 

pyn,  j   beadu  (o), 

pynne.  (   beadpe,  beadupe. 

pyn.  beadu  (o). 

pynne.  beadpe,  beadupe. 

pynne  (a),  beadpe  (d),  beadupe  («), 

pynna.  beadpe?,  beadup«. 

pynnz«n.  beadpt<m,  beadupz«?i. 

pynne  (a),  beadpe  (d),  beadnpe  (d). 

pynne  (d).  beadpe  (d),  beadupe  (d). 

pynnz^m.  beadp2«w,  beadupt«m. 


Stem.. 
Theme 

SlNGULAR.- 

Kom.  .  . 
Gen.  .  .  . 
Bat.  .  .  . 

Ace.  .  .  . 

Voc.  .  .  . 
Inst.  .  .  . 

Plural. — 
Nom. 
Gen.  . 
Bat.  . 
Ace.  . 
Voc.  . 
list.  . 


4.  boci,  booh 
buc. 

boo. 
boce. 
bee. 

boc 

boo. 
bee. 


bee. 

bocd. 

hocum. 
bC'C. 
bee. 

hocion. 


5.  mtisi,  mouse. 
mUs. 

mtls. 
muse, 
mys. 

mtis. 

mAs. 
rays. 

mys. 

mtisd. 

ratisMm. 
m^s. 
mys. 

mAsici7i. 


6.  ceasteri,  citi/. 
ceaster,  ceastr. 

ceaster. 
ceastre. 
ceastre. 
j   ceaster. 
I   ceastre. 
ceaster. 
ceastre. 

ceastre  (d). 

ceastrd. 

cevLStvtcm. 
ceastre  (d). 
ceastre  (d). 

cesiSti'U}7i. 


91.  To  the  2d  class  belong  all  feminines  ending  in  a  consonant: 
they  arc  simple  monosyllables;  derivatives  in  -el,  -en,  -er ;  -ung ; 


STRONG  NOUNS  (FEMININES).  47 

-nis,  -nes ;  -es  ;  -oc  ;  -oct,  -uct,  d ;  p-;  nearly  all  strong  feminines 
conform. 

(a.)  The  feminines  of  the  first  Sanskrit  declension  are  a-stems  and 
i-stems. 

{b.)  The  apocope  of  stem  i  in  the  singular  nominative,  accusative,  and 
vocative,  is  the  effect  of  gravitation  {^  38).  That  short  roots  retain  the  stem 
vowel  (gifu,  etc.).  while  long  roots  drop  it  (dxd,  etc.),  shows  compensation 
(^  37).     Compare  the  feminine  of  the  strong  adjectives. 

(c.)  The  singular  accusative  -e,  the  plural  nominative,  accusative,  and 
vocative  -d,  and  dative  -iim<C-im,  are  conformations  with  the  1st  class. 
\  40,  1. 

A.  (1.  Common  Form.) — Like  d&d  decline  words  of  this  de- 
clension ending  in  a  syllable  long  by  nature  or  position :  «r,  honor ; 
Mn,  prayer ;  Mr,  lore ;  rod,  cross  ;  pwid,  wound ;  pyrd,  fate ;  ge- 
samnung,  assembly ;  so  also  ides,  woman,  and  some  other  words 
in  a  short  syllable. 

(a.)  Except  words  like   boc  and  mils  (4,  5),  and  like  da,  clco  (^  100). 
(fi.)  Many  have  sometimes  -d  in  the  dative  :  some  originally  -u  stems  re. 
taining  it,  others  conforming — words  in  -ung  oftenest.     ^  93,  i. 

B.  (2.  Gemination) — Like  pyn  decline  words  of  this  declen- 
sion ending  short  in  a  consonant :  ben,  wound ;  hlis,  bliss ;  hen, 
hen ;  hyrgen,  sepulcher ;  gpnen,  care ;  prinis,  trinity,  etc. 

(3.  Semivowel  Gemination.) — Like  headu  decline  feminines  in 
p'^u  (§  30) :  gearu,  gear  ;  sccadu,  shadow,  but  sceade,  sceadd  are 
found  ;  riBstt,  providence;  seomi,  sinew. 

(a.)  Except  syncopated  forms  like  ceastcr,  and  a  few  like  divd. 
(b.)  For  the  simplification  of  gemination  pynri^pyn,  see  §  20,  Rule  13. 
(c.)  The  u  of  lip  is  made  in  closing  the  organs  to  p  (^  27,  5).     It  may 
suffer  precession  to  o>e  (^  38).     Final p>i<  is  shifting  (§  30  ;  41,  2). 

C.  (4,  5.  Umlaut.) — Like  hoc  decline  broc,  breeches ;  gos,  goose. 
Like  mils  decline  Ms,  louse;  for  cd,  cow;  burh,  borough;  turf, 
turf,  see  §  100.     Note  also  dohtor,  speoster,  moder. 

(a.)  The  changes  in  the  roots  oi  boc,  mus,  etc.,  are  i-umlaut  concealed: 
bec<b6ci  (Old  Saxon  buci),  ^  32,  2. 

D.  (6.  Syncope.) — Like  ceaster  decline  syncopated  words  of 
this  declension :  they  end  in  an  unaccented  vowel  before  I,  n,  r, 
or  sometimes  other  single  consonants  (§  4G) :  sapel,  soul ;  stefen, 
voice  ;  lifer,  liver ;  meoluc,  milk.     Unsyncopated  forms  occur. 

E.  For  forms  from  ^V^stems ;  hand,  hand  ;  niht,  night ;  piht, 
whit,  see  §  100.     For  Northumbrian  forms,  see  page  49. 


48 


DECLKNSION  III.  (U-STEMS). 


92.   STRONG    NOUNS   (MASCULINES). 
I.  Head-cases  in  a  Voiccl. — Genitive  in  a.     (Declension  III.) 

Case-eudings  <  stem  u  +  relational  suffixes.     Nominative  in  u. 
Feminine  hand  (hand)  is  added. 

Stem 1.  sunn,  son.  2.  bandu,  hand. 

Theme sun.  hand. 

Nominative. .  suiu/.  hand. 

Genitive sund  handc?. 

Dative sun(/,  suni<.  handc?,  hand. 

Accusative . . .  sumi.  hand. 

Vocative suini.  hand. 

Instrumental.           suna.  hand«,  hand. 
Plueal. — 

Nominative..  sunii  (o),  sun^l  lianda. 

Genitive \  '  r  handa. 

(      sune^ia.  ) 

Dative ^xxwum.  handt<m. 

Accusative...  sunw  (o),  suna.  bandit. 

Vocative sun?/  (o),  sund  handd 

Instrumental.           &\xnum.  handi<j>i. 

93.  To  the  third  declension  belong  sunu;  pudii^v^oo^',  magu, 
servant :  and  hregu,  prince ;  headu-.,  fight ;  heorxi,  sword  ;  lagn, 
lake;  meodu^  mead;  salu^  hall;  sidu,  custom,  and  a  few  others, 
found  mostly  in  the  singular  nominative  and  accusative,  and  in 
composition. 

(a.)  This  declension  corresponds  to  the  Latin  second  in  so  far  as  it  con- 
tains those  masculine  nouns  which  have  their  head-cases  in  a  vowel,  and  so 
is  a  complement  of  declension  second.  In  its  original  stem  it  corresponds  to 
the  Latin  fourth.     §  101,  b. 

Sanskrit.      Greek.         Latin.  Gothic.        Old  Saxon.      Old  Noi-se. 

(       sunu,         vtKv,        fructu,  sunu,  sunu,  sonu, 

Stem i  ^    •. 

I        son,         corpse.       ji-uit.  son.  son.  son. 

Singular. — 

Nominative..  sunii-s       vtKV-g     fructu-s      simu-s  sunu, -o  soii-r 

^     .  .  .        ,         .  ^       .  Csun(u)-o) 

Genitive  ....         sunv-as     viKv-oc    fructu-s       sunau-s     S         .       ,-        sona-r 

(  sunje-s  ) 

Dative     from   (    sunaii )  ,  (fructu-i)  (sunu,  -o,) 

-<     .    ,     . ,'      vfKv-i    -^  ^  >      sunau      <  .      >         sjiii 

Locative...    t  sunav-i)  (  fructu)  (    sunje    ) 

Accusative. . .  sunii-m      v'tKv-v     fructu-m        sunu  sunu,  -o  son 

Vocative sit'no  vtKV       (Xomin.)     sunau,  -u      (A'omin.)        (^Nomin.) 

Instrumental.        suml-n-a     {Dat.)      {Ablat.)     {Dative.)         sunju  (^Dative.) 


STRONG  NOUNS  (MASCULINES).  49 

Sanskrit.        Greek.  Latin.  Gothic.        Old  Saxon.       Old  Norse. 

_  (  sunu,  vsKv,        fructu,  sunu,  sunn,  sonu. 

Stem ■)  J-    ■ 

\    son.  corpse.        Jruit.  son.  son.  son. 

Plckal. —         .       ,        ^ 

f  sun^v-ns) 
Nominative.  1    ,        ,    (-   v'tKv-tc,     fructu-s      siuiju-s  simi  syni-r 

C  sunv-as  ) 

Genitive sunu'-n-am  veicv-iov   fructu-um    suniv-e      siinj-6, -eo         son-a 

Dative sunii-blijas  (^Locat.)  fructi-bus     sunu-m        sunu-n  sonu-m 

.  .  (siinu'-n)       '  j-      ^~ 

Accusative..  -,    .        ,    t   viKv-ag     tructu-s      sunu-ns  sum  sonu 

C  sunv-as  ) 

The  Old  High  German  has  snnu  (0),  suncs,  siinju  (sunu),  sunu  {o),sunju 
(sunu)  ;  su?ii,  suvjo,  sunim  (sunum),  sunt  (u).  The  i^-declension  is  near- 
ly extinct.     O.  Fries,  smi-u  (0),  -a  -a,  -u;  ~ar  (-a),  -a,  -urn,  -ar  (-a). 

(b.)  Gravitation  has  carried  away  all  the  consonants  from  the  Anglo-Saxon 
case-endings,  except  the  -in  of  the  dative  plural,  which  is  a  nasalizing  of  the 
original  hh.     ^  38. 

(c.)  The  Gothic  du  of  the  genitive  and  dative  singular  is  a  progression 
from  u  (sunu-as'^sundu-as^sundus),  ^  38,  1.  The  Anglo-Saxon  a  nearly 
resembles  it,  and  is  retained  in  the  paradigms  as  the  classic  sound,  though  it 
suffered  precession  in  later  times. 

(d.)  The  instrumental  sund,  handd  are  dative  forms. 

(e)  The  plural  -«>-0  is  precession  :  it  is  found  also  in  the  singular. 
^  38,  1. 

(/.)  The  plural  -d  and  -end  conform  to  the  second  declension. 

(g.)  Note  the  umlaut  and  shifting  in  tiie  Old  Norse  :  s]>r,  u^O,  iC^y. 

(h.)  Hand  conforms  almost  wholly  to  the  first  declension. 

(i.)  Some  words  originally  w-stems  retain  the  forms  of  this  declension  in 
single  cases,  especially  in  the  singular  dative  -a,  and  plural  nominative,  ac- 
cusative, and  vocative  -u:  feldd,  field  ;  fordd,  ford  ;  sumord,  summer;  pin- 
trd,  piniru,w\niei- ;  dura,  door.  Some  words  of  other  stems  conform  in  the 
same  cases  :  peoruldd,  world  ;  gehrudru,  brothers  ;  dohlru,  daughters  ;  mo- 
dru,  mothers  ;  gespeostru,  sisters  ;  feminines  in  -ung. 

(k.)  For  irregular  forms  ofpudu,  magu,  hand,  etc.,  see  i^*  100. 

04.    NOKTIIUMBRIAX. 

Feminines,  Declension  II. — In  words  of  the  First  Cla.ss  -a  is  found  for 
Common  Anglo-Saxon  -u  or  -e.  Feminines  sometimes  have  -cs  in  the  geni- 
tive singular  and  -as  in  the  plural,  and  then  may  pass  for  masculines. 

Singular. — Nom.  gefa.  Plural. — Nom.  geids. 

Gen..  gdcs(acs).  Gen.,  gefena. 

Dat..  gefa.  Dat..  geCum. 

Masculines,  Declen.  I.  and  III.— Here  a  for  ?«  is  found  :  suna  for  sunu  ; 
also  the  complete  descending  series  o(tt:  suno,  sune,  sun,  sun.     ^  38,  1. 

Nouns  strong  in  Common  Anglo-Saxon  often  have  weak  forms  or  mixed 
strong  and  weak  forms  in  Northumbrian.     The  genitive  -end  abounds. 

D 


50 


DECLENSION  IV.— AN-STEMS. 


95.    WEAK    NOUNS. 

Case-endings  <  stem  an  +  relational  suffixes. — Genitive  in  an. 

(Declension  IV.) 


1, 

.  Masculines. 

2.  Feminines. 

3.  Neuteks. 

Contracts. 

Stem..  1 

hanan, 

code. 

tungan, 
tongue. 

eugan, 
eye. 

taan, 
toe. 

Thcmo 

ban. 

tung. 

eag. 

ta. 

SlSTGULAR.— 

. • 

--— V — ■ 

— -V          ■- 

— -v— 

Nom.  . . 

bana. 

tunge. 

cage. 

tae,  ta. 

Gen.  . . . 

banan. 

tungan. 

eiigan. 

taan, tan. 

Dat 

hana>i. 

tungcm. 

eagan. 

taan,  tan. 

Aec.  . . . 

banaw. 

tungan. 

cage. 

taan, tan. 

Voc.  . . . 

bana. 

tunge. 

cage. 

tae,  ta. 

I?ist 

h^man. 

tungan. 

eagan. 

taan,  tan. 

Plueal. — 

JVbm.  . . 

ban«»-. 

tungan. 

cagan. 

taan,  tan. 

Gen.  . . . 

banena. 

tungena. 

cagena. 

taena,  tana. 

Dat.  . . . 

bant«»?. 

tungiMn. 

eagnni. 

tawm. 

Ace.  . . . 

bana?i. 

tungan. 

cagan. 

taan,  tan. 

Voc.  . . . 

bana?«. 

tungan. 

eagan. 

taan,  tan. 

Inst.  . .  . 

bam««. 

tungw?n. 

eagz«n. 

iViUni. 

To  the  weak  declension  belong  certain  monosyllable  themes 
and  derivative  themes  in  -?y,  -?,  -nz,  -n,  -r,  -5,  -p^  all  adding  -a  or 
-e  in  the  nominative. 

(a.)  Stems  in  -an  are  of  the  third  declension  in  Latin  and  Greek. 


{ 


Sanskrit. 

a9man, 

stone. 


Stem 

Singular. — 

Nominative.  a^ma 

Genitive a9man-as 

Dat.  <  Loc.  a^man-i 

Accusative..  a9mfin-am 

Vocative. . . .  a^man 

Instrument,  ayman-a 

Plural. — 

Nominative,  a^man-as 

Genitive a^man-am 

Dative a9ma-b!ijas 

Accusative,  acman-as 


Greek. 

TTOlfXei', 

shepherd. 
7rotfit]u 

TTOlflkv-OQ 
•KOlfXiV-l 

TTOifiev-a 
(Noniin.) 
(Dative.) 


Latin. 

homen,  -i, 

man. 

homo 

homin-is 

liomini 

homin-em 

(Nomin.) 
{Ablat.) 


Gothic. 

hanan, 

cock. 

hana 
hanin-s 
hanin 
hanan 

hana 
(Dat.) 


Old  Sax.  Old  Norse, 
hanan,  hanan, 
cock.         cock. 


hano 
hanun 
lianun 
hanun 
(Nom.) 
(Dat.) 


hani 
hana 
hana 
hana 
(No7n.) 
(Dat.) 


TToiixiv-tQ       ]iomin-es      lianan-s      hanun     hana-r 
■jToijuv-Mv     homin-um     lianan-e    hanon-o     hana 
(Local.)      homini-bus     hana-m      hanun     honn-m 
TToifiLv-ag       Iiomin-es     hanan-s        hanun       hana 
The  Old  High  German  has  hano,  hanin,  hamn,  hanun ;  hanun,  hanon-6, 
hano-m.     O.  Fries,  sing,  hona ;  plur.  hon-a,  -ana(-ona),  -urn,  -a. 


WEAK  KOUNS.  51 

(b.)  The  singular  case-endings  are  sloughed  off;  and,  in  the  nominative, 
n  of  the  stem.  In  the  genitive  plural,  d  has  held  its  ground,  and  gravitation 
has  modified  the  stem:  (:<^>e>  —  :  arena,  drnd,  honor.  The  dative  has 
ecthlipsis  of  n  (^  47),  and  assimilative  precession  of  a7n  to  icm  (^  35, 2,  a). 

(c.)  Feminines  in  Gothic  strengthen  to  6  the  a  of  the  stem  -an  through- 
out, and  the  d  of  the  case-ending  of  the  genitive  plural.  In  Anglo-Saxon 
all  genders  agree  ;  but  feminines  in  the  nominative,  and  neuters  in  the  nom- 
inative, accusative,  and  vocative,  for  final  a  take  e  (Precession,  ^  3S). 

(d.)  The  stem  in  an  was  mostly  masculine,  but  has  been  going  over  to 
the  feminines  in  the  Teutonic  tongues  (^  67,  2). 

(e.)  The  same  peculiar  gravitation  which  has  brought  the  short  a-stems 
to  the  form  of  consonant  stems  in  declension  first,  has  here  produced  a  new 
declension  by  sloughing  away  the  endings  and  stem.  This  new  declension 
has  been  adopted  by  the  Teutonic  nations  as  their  favorite  for  secondary 
formations  having  the  force  of  an  adjective  used  as  a  noun,  and  for  definite 
adjectives ;  and  it  has  in  the  Teutonic  tongues  a  historical  and  logical  im- 
portance coordinate  with  the  strong  forms.  In  English  the  Norman  -s  join- 
ed with  -S  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  first  to  kill  it,  and  oxen,  with  the  irregular 
children,  brethren,  is  almost  its  only  memorial  in  current  speech. 

96.  Like  hana  decline  all  weak  nouns  in  -a :  bana,  death  ; 
cempa,  soldier;  c^ro/x^,  drop  ;  giayia,  man;  hunta,  himier ;  mona, 
moon  ;  oxa,  ox  ;  prwcca,  exile ;  nafela^  navel ;  /wdma,  covering ; 
geongra,  disciple ;  egesa,  awe ;  rxspa,  general ;  ffemaca,  mate. 
Some  remains  of  stems  in  -icm  are  found :  preccea  =precca.,  ag- 
Imcea,  monster,  etc. 

97.  Like  tunge  decline  all  weak  noims  in  -e:  bgrne,  mail; 
eorde,  earth ;  heorte,  heart ;  sunne,  sun  ;  si/rce,  sark ;  piece,  Aveek ; 
hlwfdige,  lady ;  fSimne,  woman  ;  nxdre,  snake ;  pudupe,  widow. 

(a.)  Except  the  four  neuters  (^  98). 

(6.)  Now  and  then  forms  are  found  in  -can  for  -an,  either  remains  of 
stems  in  -ian,  or  conforming  to  such  stems :  cyricc,  cyricean,  church. 

98.  Like  edge  decline  care,  ear ;  lunge,  lungs ;  dype,  clew. 

99.  Like  id  decline  bed, hee,  bean,  etc.;  and  masculine /reaa> 
/red,  freaan  yfredn,  lord ;   tpeoa  >  tped,  tpeoan  >  tpeon,  doubt. 

XoKTiiuirBEiAN. —  ( 'Weah  JSToiais.) 

Final  -n  and  -m  drop.  The  a  of  -an  often  suffers  precession  in  the 
masculines  to  0  or  c,  in  the  feminines  and  neuters  to  ti,  o,  or  e.  Nouns 
weak  in  Common  Anglo-Saxon  have  often  strong  forms,  or  mixed  strong 
and  weak  in  Northumbrian  :  noma  (nama),  name,  genitive  7i07na,  names. 
By  comparing  pages  49,  61,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  Northumbrian  forms 
vary  irregularly  between  forms  older  than  the  Common  Anglo-Saxon  and 
others  modified  by  gravitation  and  conformation  almost  as  much  as  the  En- 
glish.    See  page  19. 


52  IRREGULAR  NOUNS. 

100.    IRREGULAR   NOUNS. 

Such  arc  Avithout  case-endings  (Indeclinable),  or  without 
certain  cases  (Defective)  ;  or  they  vary  in  gender  (Heteroge- 
neous), in  stem  (Metaplasts),  in  case-endings  (IIeteroclites)  ; 
or  they  arc  remains  of  dead  declensions  {Reliquicc,  Relics)  ;  or 
are  disguised  by  iihouetic  changes  (Cryptoclites)  .  The  same 
noun  may  belong  to  several  of  these  classes. 

(a.)  Indeclinable  are  many  nouns  in  -u^O  (^  88,/)  :  wdelu,  f.  no- 
bility; tuvlu,  f.  heat;  /icd/utu,  f.  higlilh,  etc.  ;  and  d;  f.  law;  bed,  bi,  f.  bee, 
pi.  declined. 

(b.)  Defective. — Without  the  plural  are  most  proper,  abstract,  and  ma- 
terial names  :  JElfred ;  strcngdu,  f.  strength  ;  gold,  n.  gold.  Sometimes 
the  plural  has  a  change  of  meaning :  .a>,  rites  ;  g^ftd  (w),  nuptials ;  Icude, 
men?  -pare,  men?  Without  the  singular  are  Jidcru,  n.  wings;  Jirds,  m. 
men  ;  frxtpc,  f.  ornaments  ;  gcarpe,  f.  trappings  ;  geatpc,  f.  equipment ;  gc- 
im/or(?/),  m.  brothers  ;  ^e5/>co5/or,  f.  sisters  ;  ^(?5/'eo?-w,  n.  hills  ;  getimbru, 
n.  building;  Icndenu,  n.  loins  ;  niddds,  men  ;  -paran,  -pards,  -pare,  m.  citi- 
zens ;  pelerds  (-«),  m.  f.  lips. 

(c.)  Heterogeneous. — Masculine  and  Neuter  are  dcufol,  devil ;  dogor, 
day;  feorJi,  life;  frkt,  peace;  gcpanc,  mind;  God,  m.,  plur.  godds,  m., 
godu,  n.  God,  idols ;  gym,  distress  ;  hcafod,  n.  head,  plur.  sometimes  hcaf- 
dds,  m. ;  hedp,  heap  ;  hilt,  hilt ;  holt,  holt ;  rxced,  house  ;  tungol,  star  ;  pxl, 
weel ;  pesten,  waste  ;  pam,  spot ;  polcen,  cloud  ;  brim,  sea  ;  cealf,  calf. 

Feminine  and  Neuter  are  sehylgd,  offense ;  wdelu,  sing,  f.,  plur.  n.  nobil- 
ity ;  xfest,  envy  ;  gepeaht,  counsel ;  gift,  dower ;  grin,  snare  ;  liget,  light- 
ning; peostor,  n.,  peostru,  f.  darkness;  paid, p&de,  weeds;  piht,  whit. 

Masculine  and  Feminine  are  drist,  resurrection ;  bend,  bond  ;  hearg, 
grove;  list,^.ri;  nedhpest,i.  m.v'icm^ge;  5^,  sea ;  5ceZ, luck;  str&l,axxov!\ 
sper,  column  ;  peard,  watch  ;  pelerds  (-a),  lips ;  leod,  f.  a  people,  plur.  m.  ? 
leode,  men  ;  paru,  f.  state,  plur.  -pare,  m.  ?  citizens  {\  86) ;  est,  love. 

Masculine,  Feminine,  and  Neuter  are  pjred,  throe ;  pxstm,  growth. 

(d.)  Metaplasts.  —  Forms  from  stems  in  -la,  -lan,  mix  with  others: 
plencu,  f.  pomp,  plur.  gen.  plenced ;  caig,  f.  key,  plur.  nom.  cxgid ;  fisc,  m. 
fish,  plur.  worn,  fisce as ;  l&ce,  m.  leech,  plur.  nom.  Iwceds;  cirice,  f.  church, 
plur.  nom.  ciricean.  From  w-stems  :  duru,  pudu,  magu,  like  sunu  {^  92), 
also  gen.  dure  ?  pudes,  plur.  nom.  pudds,  magds ;  hand,  etc.  (^  93,  i).  To 
some  stems  -cr  is  added  :  ssg,  egg;  cealf,  calf;  cild,  child  (^  82).  Stems 
with  and  without  quasi-gemination  (^^  81,91)  :  sceadu,  f.  shadow,  dat.  scea- 
dupc,  sccadc  ;  fri,  freo,  m.  freeman,  plur.  nom.  frige,  freo.  Metathesis  : 
fisc,  m.  fish,  plur.  x^Qxa.  fixds.  Many  conforming  regulars,  and  heteroclites, 
are  metaplastic 

(e.)  Heteroclites.  —  Many  heterogeneous  strong  nouns  (1)  with  Mascu- 
line and  Neuter  endings:  God,  m.  God,  plur.  m.  Godds,  n.  Godu;  heafod, 
n.  head,  plur.  n.  heafodu,  plur.  m.  hcafdds.     (2)  With  Feminine  and  Neu- 


IRREGULAR  NOUNS.  53 

ter  endings  :  wfest,  envy,  gen.  n.  mfesies,  pi.  nom.  f.  wfeslc ;  gift,  f.  dower, 
plur.  nom.  f.  gifid,  n.  giftu;  grin,  snare,  inst.  grine,  grine,  plur.  nom.  grinu, 
grinu.  (3)  With  Masculine  and  Feminine  :  bend,  bond,  plur.  nom.  bendds, 
-a,  -e;  s&,  sea,  gen.  ssbs,  ssb;  pelerds,  -a,  lips.  Many  themes  have  both 
weak  and  strong  forms :  lieofon,  heofon-e,  heaven  ;  sunn-u,  sunn-e,  sun  ; 
-par-ds,  -par-an,  men  ;  but  such  are  given  as  different  words.  Some  mix  : 
c&g,  f.  key,  gen.  c&gan,  dat.  c&ge,  plur.  nom.  cxgid,  dat.  aigum. 

if.)  Relics  of  the  r-stem  are  brvdor,  hxoi\\ex  (J^  87);  modor,  mother; 
JtJ/j/or,  daughter  ;  spcostor,  sxsiev  ;  gcbrudor,  gebrudru  (dual  ?),  brothers  ; 
gespeostor,  sisters  ;  fxdcr,  father,  sing,  indecl.  has  also  gen.  and  pi.  forms  of 
Declension  Third  ;  of  the  ?it?-stem  are  fcond,  fiend  (§  87)  ;  frcond,  friend  ; 
and  (compound)  participial  nouns  :  ymb-sittend,  neighbors,  plur.  nom. ;  fold- 
buend,  farmers;  plur.  nom.  sometimes  in  -as,  gen. -rd,  like  adjectives;  of 
other  consonant  stems  :  neaht,  f.  night,  gen.  nihte,  nihtes,  generally  adverb- 
ial, plur.  nom.  niht ;  piht,  f.  whit,  plur.  nom.  (^piht,  Grimm)  pihtd,  pihtu, 
pihte;   burg,  f.  borough,  gen.  byrg,  byrig;  man,  man  (^  84). 

{g.)  Cryptoclites. — The  most  common  obscure  forms  spring  from 

1.  Concealed  umlaut.  See,  for  paradigms,  Z/tlc,  book  ;  ??jm5,  mouse  (^  90)  ; 
fot,  foot ;  man,  m.an  (^  84) ;  Iroder,  brother  ;  fcond,  fiend  (^  87)  ;  like  are 
broc,  breeches ;  gos,  goose ;  tod,  tooth ;  lus,  louse  ;  mus,  mouse  ;  cu,  f.  cow, 
gen.  ciis  (Rask),  dat.  cy,  ace.  cu,  plur.  nom.  cy,  eye  (cus,  Rask),  gen.  cund, 
dat.  cum;  burg,  burh,  f.  borough,  gen.  byrig,  burge,  dat.  byrig,  byrg,  plur. 
nom.  byrig,  gen.  burgd,  dat.  burgum;  turf,  f.  turf,  dat.  tyrf;  modor,  dohtor, 
speostor;  freond,  friend. 

2.  Quasi-gemination  of  semi-vowels  :  paradigms  of  bcadu,  battle  {^  90, 
3) ;  here,  host  {^  85,  a).  Like  are  frxtupe  (a),  frxipe  («),  f.  plur.  orna- 
ment ;  gearpe,  f.  plur.  trappings  ;  gealpc,  f.  plur.  equipment ;  nearu,  f.  nar- 
rowness ;  rsisu,  f.  providence  ;  seonu,  f.  sinew  ;  melu,  n.  meal ;  ealu,  n.  ale, 
etc. ;  and  fri,  freo,  m.  freeman,  plur.  n.  frige,  freo  ;  pine,  m.  friend,  plur. 
nom.  pinds,  pine,  gen.  pind,  pinid,  pinigd,  pimgcd,  AzX.pinum,  ace.  pinds,pinc. 

3.  Apothesis  and  Contraction — words  in  ?«>0  indeclinable  (^  100,  a). 
b'l,  beo,  f.  bee,  sing,  indeclinable,  plur.  nom.  beon,  gen.  beijnd,  dat.  bcoum, 
eld,  f.  claw,  plur.  nom.  cldpe,  dat.  cJdm.  {beam, 
dry,  rn.  magician,  dat.  dry,  plur.  nom.  dryds,  gen.  dryru. 

ed,  f.  river,  gen.  cd,  &,  cus  (m.),  dat.  cd  {ic,  Rask),  plur.  nom.  cd,  cds  (m.), 

dat.  cam. 
feoh,  fco,  n.  kc,  gen.  fcjos,  dat.  feo;    plur.  nom.  fco,  gen.  fel^na,  fed 

(<i fed/id):    so  hrcoh,  pleoh,  pcoh,  etc. 
ho/i,  ho,  m.  hough,  gen.  has,  dat.  ho,  plur.  nom.  hos,  gen.  hod,  etc. 
hrdp,  hrd-p,  hrcdp,  hrd,  hrcd,  n.  sing,  and  plur.  nom.  ace.  voc.  body,  corpse, 

gen.  hruis {'Chnl-pcs),  plur.  nom.  hriepas,  dat.  hni-pum. 
morgen,  m.  morning,  plur.  gen.  morgcnd,  morgnd,  mornd. 
Sic,  m.  f  sea,  gen.  sws,  s&pe,  s£,  dat.  sic,  sdpc,  plur.  nom.  sAs,  su',  dat. 
SCO,  f.  pupil,  gen.  seon,  scdn.  sugu,  su,  f.  sow,  d.  sHc.  [sivm,  siepum. 

treop,  trco,  n.  tree,  gen.  treopes,  plur.  nom.  treopu,  tripu,  trcop,  trco. 
pred,  f.  m.  n.  throe,  indeclinable,  plur.  dat.  prcdtim,  predm. 


54  PROPER  NAMES. 

101.   PROPER   NAMES. 

(1.)  Persons.  —  JVcimes  of  loomen  in  -u  or  a  consonant  are 
strong^  those  in  -e  or  -a  are  iceak.  Declension  II.,  d-stem :  Begii, 
Freapavu;  i-stem:  Bcadohiltl,  Ilygd,  and  most  others.  Declen- 
sion IV. :  Elene,  Eve,  Ada,  Mavia,  etc.,  from  foreign  7iames  ; 
Pcalhl)eu(p),  dat.  Pealbl^eun  (§  99). 

Names  of  men  in  -u,  -e,  or  a  consonant  are  strong,  those  in  -a 
are  weak.  Declension  III,  u-stem :  Leofsunu  ?  Decle')ision  I, 
a-stem:  -^Elfred,  Beupulf,  Eadmund,  Sigemund  {gen.  also  Sige- 
jnunde<muud,/".  iias/t')  ?  Pclaiid,  and  most  other  strong  names ; 
syncopated:  Ecgl3e6(p),  f/m.  Ecgl)e6pes,  Ecg]3eues,  €<c./  Ongeii- 
J)e6(p)  ;  Grende],  <7e?z.  Grendeles,  Grendles,  etc.;  Hredel;  ia- 
stem:  Ine,  Hedde,  Gislherc,  Pulfhere,  Eadpine,  Godpine,  and 
others  from  -here  and  -pine;  umlaut  not  found:  Hereman,  dat. 
lleremanne.     Declension  IV.:  iEtla,  Becca,  and  many  others. 

(a.)  Foreign  names  sometimes  retain  foreign  declension,  or  are  unde- 
clmed,  but  are  generally  declined  as  above ;  those  in  -as,  -es,  -us  do  not 
often  increase  in  the  genitive.  Those  from  Latin  -us,  Greek  -oq,  of  the 
second  declension,  sometimes  drop  their  endings  and  take  those  of  the 
Anglo-Saxon  first:  Crist  (<Christus),  Cristes,  Criste,  etc.  In  less  fa- 
miliar ivords  -us  oftenest  stands  in  the  nom.  and  gen.,  but  sometimes  the 
Latin  and  Anglo-Saxon  forms  mix  throughout :  Petrus,  gen.  Petrus,  Petres, 
Petri,  dat.  Petro,  Petre,  ace.  Petrus,  Petrum  ;  so  -as  and  -es  :  Andreas,  gen. 
Andreas,  dat.  Andrea,  ace.  Andrecis,  Andream ;  Herodes,  Herodes,  Herode, 
Herod-em,  -es,  or  -e. 

(5.)  Li  Gothic  these  Latin  and  Greek  names  of  the  second  declension  are 
regularly  given  in  the  u-declension :  Paitrus,  gen.  Paitraus,  dat.  Paitrau, 
ace.  Paitru  (^  93,  a).  The  Anglo-Saxon  genitive  Petrus  may  be  a  relic 
of  the  u-declension. 

(2.)  Peoples. — Plurals  in  -as  a?id  -e  «re  strong,  in  -an  weak. 
Declension  I,  a-stem :  Brittas,  Scottas,  etc.  ;  ia-stem  and  i-stem : 
Dene,  gen.  Den-a,  -ia,  -iga,  -gea  (§  85,  a) ;  Romane,  etc.  Declen- 
sion IV. :  Gotan,  Seaxan,  etc. 

The  singidar  is  oftenest  an  adjective  in  -isc  regularly  declined: 
Egyptisc  xw^Vi,  Egrjptian  man ;  Egyptisc  idQS,  Egyptian  woman; 
i)a  Egyptiscan,  the  Egyptians,  etc.    Sometimes  an  Brit,  a  Briton. 

Often  is  found  a  collective  loith  a  genitive,  or  with  an  adjective, 
or  coynpounded :  Seaxna  })e6d  ;  Filistea  folc;  Caldea  cyn  ;  Ebrea 
peras;  Sodomisc  cyn;  Rom-pare  (§  86);  Nord-men  (§84,  3),e^(?. 
Foreign  names  are  treated  as  are  names  of  persons. 

(3.)  CouNTEiES.  —  A  feio  feminine  7iames  are  found:  Engel, 
England ;   Bryten,  Britannia.      Oftenest  is  found  the  j^eople's 


SUAOIAEY  OF  CASE-ENDINGS.  55 

name  in  the  genitive  with  land,  rice,  ectel,  etc.^  or  in  an  oblique 
case  icith  a  i^^^position :  Engla  land  ;  Sodoma  rice ;  on  East-En- 
glum ;  of  Seaxum ;  on  Egyptum.  Foreign  names  are  treated  as 
are  names  of  persons. 

(4.)  Cities. — JVcmies  found  alone  are  regularly/  declined  accord- 
ing to  gender  and  endings:  Rom,/.  Rome;  Babylon,  n.  Babylo- 
iies;  Sodoma,  m.  Sodoman,  Oftenest  they  are  x>refixed  undeclined 
to  burg,  ceaster,  pic,  dtin,  ham,  etc.:  Lunden-pic,  Roma-burg,  etc.; 
or  the  folk's  name  in  the  genitive  folloioed  hy  burg,  ceaster,  etc.,  is 
used:  Caldea  burg.    Foreign  names  treated  as  names  of  2Jersons. 

10  2.  WEATHERING    OF   C  AS  E  -  E  N  DIN  G  S. 
(1.)  Anglo-Saxon:  Strong.  Weak. 

^ ,  , ^ , 

Masculine.  |        Neuter.  |       y^m.        |  Masc.  I  Masc.  Fem.  Neut. 

Decl.  I.  I        Decl.  I.  I    Decl.  II.    I    Decl.  III.  |          Decl.  IV. 

Uead^cases  ia  a  consonant.  j  Head-cases  in  a  vowel,  j  Head-cases  in  -an. 

Stem a       ia       i  a        ia  a           1  u  an      an      an 

Singular. — 

N.&V. _ee  -eu-  u  aee 

Gen es       es       es  es        es  e           e  a  an       an       an 

Dat e        e        e  e          e  e           e  a  an       an       an 

Ace _        e        e  -          e  u,  e       e,  -  u  an       an        e 

Inst e        e        o  e          e  e           e  a  an       an      an 

Plubal. —  v^ ■ — 

iV.,  A.,  &  V.      as      as     e,  as       u,  -       u  a,  e       e,  a  u,  0,  a  an 

Gen a        a.        a  a         a  a,  ena  a,  ena  ena 

Z).  &  Inst.  . .      um     um     um  um      um  um  um  um 

(2.)  Layamon:  , , 

Singular. — 

N.,A.,&,V.       -           e,  en  -         e  e, -,  en  e  e,  en 

Gen es            es  es        es  e, -,  en,  es  e,  es  en,  e,  es 

I>.&  Inst.  .,     e,  en        e,  en  e,  en    e,  en  e, -,  en  e  en,  e 

N.,A.,&V.         es,  en,  e  e, -,  es,en         e,  en,  es        e,  en,es  en,  e,  es 

Gen e,ene,en,es  e,  en,  es       c,en,ene,es      en,  es         en,ene,enen 

D.&Inst....  en,  e,  es  en,  e,  es  en,  es  en,  es  en,  e 

Here  is  precession  of  all  the  vowels  to  e  (^  38)  (a  is  found  here  and  there) ; 
(2),  shifting  of  m  to  Ol  (^41,5);  (3),  a  conflict  everywhere  between  s  and 
n,  the  weak  and  strong  forna.  In  the  earlier  manuscript  n  most  abounds, 
in  the  later  5.     Norman  influence,  ^  95,  c. 

(3.)  Ormulum. — Singular,  N.,  A.,V.,D.,  I.  aliJcc  ;  Genitive  -ess.  Plural, 
all  cases  alike  in  -ess.  Singular  dative  -e  is  found  with  prepositions  in  a 
few  phrases,  and  Plural  genitive  -e  (Northern  dialect). 

(4.)  Chaucer  instead  of -ess  has  -es  or  -s :  king,  kinges;  lover,  lovers. 
The  last  form  brings  us  to  Modern  English.  Irregular  forms  having  um- 
laut (1^  100,  i^),  or  plural  -en  (^  95,  c),  or  indeclinable  from  r-stems  or  neu- 
ters plural  (^  100,/),  arc  found  in  Chaucer,  and  a  few  still  survive. 


56 


ADJECTIVES.— INDEFINITE  DECLENSION. 


IV.   ADJECTIVES. 

INDEFINITE    AND    DEFINITE    DECLENSIONS. 

103.  An  aJjcctive  iu  Auglo-Saxou  has  one  set  of  strong  and 
one  of  -weak  endings  for  each  gender.  The  latter  are  used  when 
the  adjective  is  preceded  by  the  definite  article  or  some  word 
like  it.     Hence  there  are  two  declensions,  the  indefinite  and  the 

definite. 

10-i.  —  I.  J7ie  Indefinite  Declension. 

Case-endings  <  stem  a,  a,  or  i  -f  relational  suffixes. 

Masculine.  Feminine.  Neuter. 

,;,               j  blinda,  blinda,  blindi,  blinda, 

* "    (    blind.  blind.  blind: 

Tiiemc  .        blind.  blind.  blind. 

JSTom blind  blind  (w)  blind 

Gen blindc5  blindrc  bliudts 

Dat hWu^um  blindj'C  blindw^i 

■  Ace blind?ie  blindc  blind 

Voc blind  blind  (?/)  blind 

Jnst blinds  blindre  blinde 

Plural. — 

Nom blinde.  blinde  blindz^ 

Gen blindrc?  blindra  blindr<^ 

Dat blind  w;)^  blind^^^7^  hYm^ian 

Ace blinde  blinde  bliud?^ 

Voc blinde  blinde  blind?<; 

Inst hlindiion  blindz«?i  hWndian 

(a.)  In  other  Indo-European  languages  the  adjective  is  declined  like  the 
substantive ;  in  the  Teutonic  it  follows  the  pronominal  declension.  This 
has  been  explained  by  supposing  a  composition  in  the  Teutonic  between  the 
adjective  stem  and  a  pronoun  (in  Sanskrit  jas,  jd,  jad,  a  relative)  which  it 
is  suggested  must  have  been  in  the  Teutonic  Parent  Speech  j'is,  ja,  jata ; 
jis,  jizos,  jis ;  jamma,  jizai,  jam^na  ;  jana,  ja,  jata ;  je,  jizai,  je ;  plural, 
jai,j6s,ja;  jize,jiz6,jize;  jaim;  jans,  jus,  ja,  and  ha.ve  had  a  demonstra- 
tive sense.  Whether  there  has  been  a  composition  with  a  particular  pro- 
noun, or  a  conformation  to  the  pronominal  declension,  must,  in  the  absence 
of  decisive  phonetic  demonstration,  be  decided  from  the  meaning ;  and  the 
fact  that  this  is  the  indefinite  form,  and  is  not  used  where  the  sense  calls  for 
a  demonstrative,  weighs  heavily  against  composition  with  a  demonstrative. 

(b.)  We  give  the  demonstrative  pronoun  from  which  comes  the  definite 
article : 


THE  PRONOMINAL  DECLENSION. 


57 


Stem, 

S.inskrit. 

Greek. 

Latin. 

Gothic. 

A.-S.1X.   ( 

S.ILGer. 

Masculine  .  .  . 

sa,  ta 

TO,  6,   0 

to  (is-to) 

sa,  fa,  fii 

sa,  fa 

de,di 

Feminine  .  .  . 

sa,  ta 

U,  TCI 

ta 

sa,  fa,  fi 

sa,fa 

di,  de 

Neuter 

ta 

TO,  0 

to 

fa,fi 

fa 

da,  de 

SlNGlJLAR. — 

Nominative, 

Masculine .  .  . 

sa 

6,  u-c 

te  (iste) 

sa 

se 

de-r 

Feminine  .  .  . 

sa 

I'l 

ta 

so 

seo 

di-u 

Neuter 

ta-t 

TO,   0 

tu-d 

fa-t-a 

fa;-t 

da-z 

Genitive, 

Masc.  &  Neut. 

ta'-sja 

TO-XO,  TOO 

tins 

fi-s 

f£e-s 

dij-s 

Feminine  .  .  . 

ta'-sj-as 

tFi-c 

tius 

fi-zos 

\  ffi-re 

de-ra 

Dative, 

Masc.  &  Neut., 

ta'-smai 

r(i} 

ti 

pa-mma 

fa-m 

de-mu 

Feminine  .  .  . 

ta'-sj-ai 

~'J 

ti 

fi-zai 

fK-re 

de-ru 

Accusative, 

Masculine  .  .  . 

ta-m 

TO-V 

tu-m 

fa-n-a 

fo-nc 

de-n 

Feminine  .  .  . 

ta-m 

Tlj-V 

ta-m 

fo 

fa 

di-a 

Neuter 

ta-t 

TO,   0 

tu-d 

|;a-t-a 

fa;-t 

da-z 

Instrumental, 

Masc.  &  Neut. 

te'n-a 

(Dat.) 

(AMat.) 

fe 

f  c,  f  y 

du,  di-u 

Feminine  .  .  . 

ta'-j-ii 

(Dat.) 

(Ahlat.) 

(Dat.) 

(Dat.) 

(Dat.) 

Plural. — 

Noininative, 

Masculine .  .  . 

te 

Toi,  01 

li 

pai 

fa 

di-c 

Femiiiine  .  .  . 

ta-s 

rai,  at 

tse 

fos 

fa 

di-o 

Neuter 

te 

TO. 

ta 

po 

fa 

di-u 

Genitive, 

IMasc.  &  Neut. 

te'-s'am 

Twy 

to-rum 

pi-zc 

fu-ra 

dc-ro 

Feminine  .  .  . 

ta'-sam 

TU-OIV,  Tthv 

ta-rum 

pi-z6 

fa-rd 

de-ro 

Dative, 

Masc.  &  Neut. 

te'-bhjas 

{Locat.) 

tls 

pai-m 

fd-m 

5  di-em, 

Feminine  .  .  . 

ta'-bhjas 

(Local.) 

lis 

pai-m 

fii-m 

\    dem 

(c.)  Peculiar  Forms.  —  Nominative  singular  neuter  t,  a  radicle,  hav- 
ing the  same  relation  to  ta  which  masculine  s  has  to  sa  (^  63,«).  Geni- 
tive feminine  singular  -re<C,sjds:  r<s  (^  41, 3,  S) ;  e<Cjus  (^  70,  b) :  the 
inserted  fJ<C.smt<^sma<^sa-ma,  this-here.  Dative  m<jnma<ismui  shows 
ecthlipsis  of  s,  gemination,  apocope  (^  38,  B ;  ^  44)  :  the  inserted  sm<C.sma, 
as  before.  Dative  -re<Csjdi;  t<^s,  etc.,  as  in  Genitive.  Accusative  -ne 
<ina,  precession  ;  «<m  (^  41,  3)  ;  a,  euphonic  epithesis,  which  prevailed 
as  a  law  in  Gothic.  Plural  nominative  pd,  Gothic  J)<^  <^tai<Cta-i-sas 
(emphatic  i  inserted) ;  compare  Greek  and  Latin  nouns  in  ^  70.  Genitive 
]id-rd  has  ?'<s  {^  41,  3,  b),  and  -d  (Gothic  <},  6)  as  in  nouns.  The  Old 
Sax.  endings  are  like  the  O.  II.  Ger.,the  Norse  like  the  adjective  (^  107). 

{(l.)  As  compared  with  the  article,  the  Anglo-Saxon  adjective  has  apocope 
of  neuter  -t ;  has  feminine  singular  -n,  neuter  plural  -i(,  plural  -e,  like  strong 
nouns;  euphonic  epenthesis  oiu  in  dative  -um.     ^^  44,  40,  50. 


58 


ADJECTIVES.— THE  DEFINITE  DECLENSION. 


105.  —  II.  The  Definite  Declension. 

Case-endings  <  stem  an  +  relational  suffixes. 

Mascdlixe.  Feminine.  Necter. 

Stem..    Lliudan,  W«i(?.  bliudan,  blindan, 

Theme  blind.  blind.  blind. 

SlNGULAK. —        — '' —  ^- — ""^-^                      ' — '^      ' 

Nom so  blind«.               seo  blinde.              j[)set  blinde. 

Gen Jiffis  blindrt??.          l^ccre  blinda??.         J)ffis  blindaw, 

Dat ]^)am  blinda/^.         J)a)re  blinda?^.        J)am  blinda??. 

Ace l^one  blinda??.        Jm  blind«?^.             l^ast  blinde. 

Voc se  blinda.                seo  blinde.               l)8et  blinde. 

Dist ]i5'' blindaw.            ]ja' re  blinda;?-.         ]>y  hWn^an. 

Plural. —      ^ ■ ^/ 

N'om J)a  blinda??. 

Gen ]5ara,  blindewa. 

Dat J)am  blindz<;/i. 

Ace ])a  blinda??. 

Voc J)a  blinda??. 

Inst J)ara  blind^«?^. 


106. — Theme  eliding  Short  {Moot  Shifting). 

Stem..      glada,  (/fefi'.  glada,  gladi.  glada. 

Theme     glad>gl?ed.  glad  >  glad.  glad>glaed. 

Ifom glfed.  gladr^.  glted. 

Ge7i glades.  glsedre.  glades. 

Dat gladt«???.  glsed?^.  gladw??^. 

Ace glredwe.  glade.  glaed. 

Voc glsed.  gladtf.  gla^d. 

Inst glade.  glasdre.  glade. 

Plueal. — 

Kom glade.  glade.  gladri?. 

Gen glsedra.  glaedra.  gla3d?'a. 

Dat gladt«?z.  gladr<???.  gladw???. 

Ace glade.  glade.  glad?/. 

Voc glade.  glade.  gladz*. 

Inst glad'?^???.  gladio??.  gladr/?w. 

In  tlie  Definite  Declension  it  has  -y/glad  throughout,  and  agrees 
Avhollv  Avith  blind. 


STKONG  AND  WEAK  DECLENSIONS.  59 

107.  —  StpwOXg: 
Singular.—       Masculine.  Feminine.  i  Neutee. 

Gothic.        O.  Sax.  O.  Noree.  |    Goth.  O.  Sax.  O.  Norse.  |    Goth.     O.  Sax.  O.Xorse. 

iYo?;i...  blind-.";,  — ,  -r ;  -a,  — ,  — ;  (^-ata),   — ,  -t. 

Gen....  bliud-/s,        -«.<;,  -s ;  -aizos,  -aro,  -rar ;  -is,         -as,  -s. 

Dat hVmd-amina, -nmu,  -um ;  -ai,  -aro,  -ri ;  -amma, -umii,  -u. 

Acc....\A\nA.-ana,     -an{a),  -an;  -a,  -a,  -a;  (-ata),   — ,  -t. 

Inst.  ..  hlmd-(I)at.)-u,  (Dat.);  (Dat.)  (Dat.)  {Dat.);  (Dat.)  -u,  -u. 
Plukal. — 

Nom...  blind-ai,        -a(-c),  -//';  -vs,  -«(-e),  -«'•;  -a,         (-m),  — . 

Gen.  ..  blind-ajse,     -aro,  -rd ;  -aizu,  -aru,  -ru ;  -aize,     -aro,  -ra. 

D.  &  I.  blind-aim,     -iin,  -nm ;  -aim,  -un,  -um ;  -aim,     -un,  -um. 

Ace...  blind-a?is,     -g(-c),  -a;  -6s,  -a(-e),  -ar ;  -a,         (-m),  — . 

Weak  : 

SiNGULAE. — 

Nom...  blind-a,  -"(-a),  -i ;  -6,  -a,  -a;  -6,  -a,  -a. 

Gen blind-j'ns,  -un,  -a;  -6ns,  -un,  -u;  -ins,  -un,  -a. 

Dat....  blind-2n,  -tm,  -a;  -on,  -un,  -u ;  -in,  -un,  -a. 

Ace blind-an,  -un,  -a;  -on,  -un,  -u ;  -6,  -a,  -a. 

Inst....  blind-(i)az.) (Z>a<.)  (Dat.);    (Dat.)  (Dat.)  (Dat);   (Dat.)  (Dat.)  (Dat.) 
Plural. — 

Nojn...  blind-ans,  -un,  -u;  -6ns,  -un,  -%i;  -6na,  -un,  -u. 

Gen....  blind-ane,  -6nu,  -u;  -6n6,  -6n6,  -u;  -anc,  -6n6,  -u. 

Z).  & /.  blind-a?«,  -un,  -u;  -6m,  -un,  -u;  -am,  -un,  -u. 

Ace blind-ans.  -un,  -u;  -6ns,  -un,  -u ;  -6na,  -un,  -u. 

In  Old  High  German  tlic  adjective  has  the  same  strong  endings  as  the  defi- 
nite article  (^  104,  b).    The  weak  form  has  Masculine  plinto,  -in,  -in,  -tin ; 
plur.  -un,  -0710,  -dm,  -un :  Feminine  plinta,  -un,  -un,  -tin ;  plur.  -un,  -6nb, 
-orn,  -un  :  Neuter  plinta,  -in,  -in,  -a  ;  pi.  -{ni,  -ono,  -6m.,  -un.    O.  Fries,  has 
strong  endings  like  A. -Sax.,  but  dat.  -a(-c);  weak  forms  like  its  noun.   ^  9.5. 
(a.)  The  Indo-European  languages  generally  have  no  separate  forms  for  the 
definite  adjective ;  but  the  Slavonic  and  Lithuania  have.    In  them  it  springs 
from  composition  between  the  adjective  and  demonstrative /a  (§  104,  a); 
Slavonic     dobryj  (good),   dobraja,  dobroje, 

from        dobras-^jas,      dobra-\-ja,  dobrat-\-jat; 
Ang.-Sax.  gdda-\-sc,  gode  -\-  .ico,  gbde  -{- pxt. 

Grimm  suggests  that  the  Teutonic  adjective  is  compounded  in  a  similar  way 
with  the  demonstrative  _;'am  (that),  English  yon.  Hcyse  suggests  a  compo- 
sition with  an,  one.  The  Teutonic  weak  declensions  form  one  whole  with 
those  of  the  aw-stems  in  other  Indo-European  tongues :  as  to  form,  all  are  a 
growth  from  one  stem.  This  stem  is  a  secondary  formation  by  means  of  the 
pronominal  affix  -an.  The  force  of  this  affix  may  be  illustrated  by  compar- 
ing it  with  the  pronouns  ji'aj«,  an;  many  nouns  with  it  are  rendered  in  En- 
glish by  an  adjective  +  orze;  pirdla,  poor  one;  yr.rcca,  wretched  one;  pana, 
defective  one,  etc. ;  but  to  call  the  adjective  a  compound  with  cither  is  likely 
to  mislead.     Compare  the  explanation  of  affixes  in  ^^  5G,G3. 


QQ  ADJECTIVES. 

As  to  the  logical  and  historical  value  of  the  weak  declension,  see  ^  95,  r. 
It  may  give  a  profound  insight  into  the  Teutonic  mind  to  notice  here  that  its 
fundamental  classification  of  objects  is  into  those  made  definite  to  thought 
and  those  not  so. 

108.  TIic  -weak  form  is  used  when  the  adjective  is  preceded  by 
the  definite  article,  or  by  a  demonstrative  or  possessive  pronoun, 
or  personal  pronoun  in  tlie  genitive,  always  with  comparatives, 
often  with  vocatives,  instrumcntals,  and  genitives,  §  362. 

(a.)  For  masculine  present  participles,  sec  ^  119. 

109.  Like  blind  decline  adjectives  ending  in  a  long  syllabic, 
participles  present,  weak  participles  past,  superlatives,  and  adjec- 
tive pronouns  :  fsest,  fast ;  god,  good ;  hdt,  hot ;  heard,  liard  ; 
hazbbende,  having  (§  119)  ;  gehdigod,  halloAved  ;  hdtost,  hotest ; 
}7itu,  mine.     See  §  110,  a. 

110.  With  the  endings  of  gixd  decline  adjectives  with  a  final 
short  syllable  and  strong  participles  past:  caf%,  blessed  ;  hxden, 
heathen  ;  fxger,  fair ;  brocen,  broken. 

(a.)  The  -u  of  the  feminine  singular  oftenest,  and  of  the  neuter  plural 
often,  suffers  precession  to  -o>  -e> — ,  especially  in  derivatives.  It  drops 
pretty  regularly  after  a  long  syllable  (^  109;  91,  J).  A  few  once  w-stems 
hold  it:  heard,  heardu^ heardc  (Gothic  hardus),  hard. 

111.  {SJiifting,  §§  '73,41),  —  Like  glscd  decline  short  monosyllables 
with  root  a  >  VC  :  beer,  bare  ;  bliec,  black  ;  krwd,  ready  ;  fipxt,  whetted  ;  Ixt, 
late  ;  s}7iwl,  small ;  sps^r,  spare  ;  pwr,  wary. 

(a.)  The  shifting  is  stopped  by  a  following  vowel,  even  by  e  which  is 
from  a,  and  e<C«.  The  nouns  {dirges)  have  shifted  further;  the  ad- 
jective has  throughout  held  stronger  than  the  noun  by  the  old  forms. 

112.  (Gemination,  §  VS). — Rule  10,  §  20,  for  simplification  of  gemi- 
nation applies:  grim,  grhnmes,  grmrc,  grimmum,  grimne,  etc.,  grim. 

113.  {Syncojye,  §§  46,  79), —  Polysyllables  in  -ig,  -ol  (ul,  el),  -en,  -or 
(cr),  and  others  liable  to  syncope,  may  drop  the  last  vowel  of  the  theme 
when  the  ending  begins  with  a  vowel:  f^ger,  iaAx,  fxgru,  hut  fsegerne ; 
hdlig,  holy,  hdligcs^hdlges,  hdligan'^ hdlgan,  etc. 

114.  (Stems  in  -ia,  §  83), — Some  adjectives  once  in  -ia  have  e<iia 
in  the  cases  usually  without  endings  :  blidc,  blithe  ;  gen.  blutes,  blidre,  bl'ides, 
etc. ;  rarely  before  the  endings:  ice,  eternal,  eccum,  ecum.  So  decline  ad- 
jectives in  -e  and  present  participles  (^  119). 

(a.)  Some  show  z-umlaut  when  compared  with  other  words :  grene 
(O.  II.  German  g'rwom),  green  ;  sefte  {soft),  so^i;  strenge  {strung)^ 
strong.     §  32,  2. 

{b.)  Some  show  compensative  gemination:  middc  <^mid  (Gothic 
midis,  midjia),  middle.     ^  37,  2. 


PARTICIPLES.— NORTHUMBRIAN  ADJECTIVE  DECLENSION.    Gl 

115.  {^Themes  in  -1). — Such  may  have  dissimilation  into  ig  before  the 
case-endings  :  fri,  free,  gen.  friges,  frigre,  etc.  The  g  is  the  parting  of  the 
organs  after  taking  the  z-position.     §  85,  a. 

IIG.  {^Themes  in  -eo). — Such  may  drop  the  vowel  of  case-endings: 
freo,  {ree,  gen.  freos,fre6re,fre6s,  etc.     §80. 

117.  {Themes  in  ;p>  -u  >  -O,  §  81 ;  91,  B). — Such  may  drop  j> 
final  after  a  vowel:  bl&,  blue,  gen.  bl&pes.  After  a  consonantp  final  shifts 
to  u'^o ;  and  before  a  vowel  may  suffer  quasi-gemination  to  iip :  fealu, 
i'i\.]lQ\v,feaIupe,  etc.  (§  27,  5).  This  ti,  may  suffer  precession  to  O'^  e:  fca- 
lope,fealepe,  etc.     §  38. 

118.  Themes  in  -h,  §  80). — Such  may  drop  h  final  or  before  a  close 
ending,  and  before  a  vowel  change  it  to  g,  or  drop  it  and  contract:  hedh,  hed 
(Gothic  hduhs,  O.  H.  German  hok),  high. 


SlNCnLAE. 

Nom.  hea(li)  nca(h)  liea(h) 

Gen.   hea(gc)s  hearc  hea(gc)s 

Dat.    liea(g)un)  licarc  hea(g)nni 

Ace.    hcano  hesXgc)  hea(h) 

T'oc.    lieu(Ii)  hca(h)  bea(h) 

Inst.    hciXgO)  he  arc  hea(ge) 


Plural. — 

Xom.  hca(gG)  hcri(gc)       hca(gu) 

Gen.    herivu  heaifi  heara 

Dai.    licri(g)um  hca(g)um  hea(g)um 

Ace.    liea(ge)  hciXge)       hea(gu) 

T'oc.    lieag(e)  ]ieji(ge)       hea(gu) 

lust.    hca(g)um  lica(g)um  hca(g)um 


The  spelling  of  such  words  is  irregular  in  the  manuscripts.     Sing.  nom. 
/leh,  accusative  hcdlmc,  hcdnne,  plur.  dat.  hcdhum,  are  found. 

119.    PAKTICirLES. 

The  participles  have  both  declensions!     §§  103,  109,  110. 

(a.)  Present  participles  in  the  strong  forms  without  endings  have  -e  like 
7a-stems  (§  114):  gifende,  giving. 

(i.)  Masculine  present  participles  used  substantively  may  take  strong 
forms  after  the  definite  article  :  pa  lidcndc  or  Intend,  those  sailing ;  Jidrd 
ymb-sittendrd,  of  those  dwelling  around.     {^  100,/.) 

(c.)  The  strong  singular  accusative  of  the  participles  is  often  (wrongly) 
spelt  without  -n  :  gccorcne<C.gecorcn-nc,  ciiosen  ;  scTidcnd-{n)e,  coming. 

120.  The  declined  infinitive  (gerund)  is  often  found  in  the  da- 
tive :  to  fm'anne,  to  fire. 

121.    NOETIIUMBRIAN   ADJECTIVE  DeCLEKSIOX. 

The  strong  declension  is  like  Common  Anglo-Saxon.  The  instrumental 
in  -e  is  very  rare  —  the  dative  takes  its  place.  The  plural  nominative  is 
often  in  -o,  perhaps  an  older  form  than  -e:  compare  Old  Saxon  -a  and  pre- 
cession, §  38 ;  perhaps  merely  an  irregular  conformation  with  weak  forms. 
The  weak  declension  drops  -??,  and  is  otherwise  like  that  of  the  weak  sub- 
stantive (p.  51). 


62  ADJECTIVES.— COMPARISON. 

122.    COMPAKISON. 

Compariso7i  is  a  variation  to  tlenoto  degrees  of  quantity  or 
quality.     It  belongs  to  adjectives  and  adverbs. 

(a.)  In  Anglo-Saxon  it  is  a  variation  of  stem,  and  is  a  matter  rather  of 
derivation  than  inflection  ;  but  the  common  mode  of  treatment  is  convenient. 

(5.)  The  suffixes  of  comparison  were  once  less  definite  in  meaning  than 
now,  and  were  used  to  form  many  numerals,  pronouns,  adverbs  >  preposi- 
tions, and  substantives,  in  which  compared  correlative  terms  are  implied : 
cither,  other,  over,  under,  first,  etc. 

(c.^  Anglo-Saxon  adverbs  are  in  brackets :  {sjmie). 

123.  Adjectives  are  regularly  compared  by  suffixing  to  the 
theme  of  the  positive  -ir^-cr  or  -Or  for  the  theme  of  the  com- 
l)arative,  and  -ist  >  -est  or  -ost  for  tlie  theme  of  the  superlative. 

The  Comparative  has  always  Aveak  endings  and  syncopated 
stem. 

The  Superlative  has  both  weak  and  strong  endings. 

Adverbs  are  compared  like  adjectives :  the  positive  uses  the 
ending  -e,  the  comparative  and  superlative  have  none ;  -ir  drops. 

Stroyig,  spid,  strenuous ;    spidra ;         spidost. 
Weak,     se  spidat;  se  spidra;    se  spidosta. 

Adverb,  (spide) ;  (spidur) ;      (spidost). 

(a.)  These  suffixes  in  the  Parent  Speech  were  comparative  -jans,  superla- 
tive -_;a?i5-^a>25ia,  combinations  of  emphatic  dental  radicles  (^56;  12G,a): 

Sanskrit.  Greek.  Latin.  G otitic.  ().  Saxon.         O.  Norse. 

^,  c  mah,  LuyyuH,         mag>mri,     mak>niri,    inik>me,    mik>mei, 

TiiGnie  '    i     I 

\great.  great.  great.  great.  great.  great. 

Compar.  mah-i-jas       /(fi-^ov  (-jon)     ma-jor,  -jus      ma-iz-a         me-r-o         mei-r-i 

Super!:    mah-is'tha        fxey-KXTo-v      (sec  §  126,  i)     ma-ist-s  me-st         mei-st-r 

The  0.  H.  German  has  mc-ro,  me-ist-cr,  Anglo-Saxon  ma-r-a,  mai-st. 

(b.)  In  Anglo-Saxon  ir<^jans,  the  i-Cj,  r<Cs  are  shifting  (^  41, 2, Z*); 
dropping  of  an,  apocope  from  gravitation  {^^  44,38).  6  in  -or  and  -ost  is 
compensative  progression  from  an  {^^  37,  38) ;  the  same  form  is  in  Gothic, 
Old  Saxon,  Old  H.  German.  Old  Norse  has  a  for  6.  A  further  precession 
took  place  in  -ir,  -or,  -ist,  -ost,  of  ^><?> — ,  and  of  o>a>a>w>e> — 
(^  38).     In  Gothic,  s  has  not  shifted  ;  so  pyrsa,  worse  {^  129). 

(c.)  The  superlative  -ta  is  suffixed  to  the  theme  of  the  positive  in  nu- 
merals: Sanskrit  s'as'-thd,  sixth;  Greek  wpw-ro, first;  Latin  ^i^ar-io, fourth; 
Gothic  a/i^w-Ja-«,  eighth ;  Anglo-Saxon /inc?-(/a,  third.     ^139. 

124.  {Umlaut,  '^  o2.,  2). — The  affixes  4r'y-cr  and  -isf^-est 


ADJECTIVES.— RELICS.  63 

may  work  i-uralaut,  changing 

a,     a,        ea,        ca,     eo  >  o,     6,     n,     11, 
to  e,     it',     y>c,      5',  y,  c,     y,     y: 

lang,  long ;  leyigra  {leng) ;  lengest. 

Strang,  strenge  (§  114,  a),  strong;  strengra ;  strengest. 

eald,  aid  (§  33),  old ;  yldra,  eldra  ;  yldest,  eldest. 

hedh,  hed,  heh,  high   (§§  118,  25);  h^rra,  hyhra,  Mrra,  hedh- 

ra;  k^hst,  hehst,  hedhst,  hedhest,  hedgost,  and  as  nedh. 
nedh^  nth,  nigh  (§§  118,  25) ;  7ipra  (npr),  nera  (nedr),  nedrra 

{)iwr) ;   nyst  (^>i>ze),  nehst,  ned/ist,  and  as  hedh. 
feor,  ifeor),  (fyr),  far;  fyrra;  fyrrest. 
geong,  young ;  gyngra  {y  >  i) ;  gyngest  (y  >  i). 
sceort,  short ;  scyrtra/  scyrtest. 

(sdfte)  sefte,  soft  (114,  a) ;  seftra  {seft)  ;  stftest.  [125, 129. 

edde  (^,  e),  easy;  pdra  (ea),  {i/d{ed,  e)) ;  pdest,  eddost.    See  §§ 

125.  {Shifting,  §  110). — Root  a~^cc  of  short  monosyllables 
shifts  to  cB  unless  the  next  syllable  begins  with  a  vowel ;  such 
words  may  also  have  forms  Avith  i-umlaut  (§  124)  : 

glsed,  glad ;  glsedra,  gledra ;  gladost. 
AriCf^,  ready ;  hrsedra,  hredra ;  hradost. 
hpsRt,  whetted,  keen ;  hpoitra;  hpatost. 
■    pser,  wary ;  pserra;  parost. 

126.  Relics  are  found  of  forms  from  Parent  Speech  Compar- 
ative -ra,  -ta-ra,  Superlative  -ma,  -ta-ma.  Of  the  comparative, 
only  pronouns,  adverbs  >  prepositions,  and  the  like :  6-der,  other ; 
hpoRder,  whether;  sb-r,  ere;  vef-ter,  after;  hi-der,  hither;  of-er, 
over ;  un-der,  under.  Of  the  superlative :  for-ma,  first ;  hiii- 
dema,  hindmost ;  inn-ema,  inmost ;  het-ema,  latest ;  med-ema, 
midmost;  ?i/c^-ema,  nethermost;  Sid-e7na,  latest ;  itt-ema,  utmost ; 
and  others  with  double  comparison.     §§  127, 129. 

(a.)  Parent  Speech  -tara.  Forms  on  an,  that,  and  Tea,  what,  English 
other,  whether : 
Sanskrit.           Greek.               Latin.  Gotliic.  O.  Saxon.     Anglo-Paxon.    O.  Norse. 

an-tara      i-r£po(c)      al-tcru(.s)  an-l>ar(a-)       A-dar  6-cter        ann-ar 

ka-tara     K6-ripo{c)     u-teru(s)  hva-]^)ar(a-)   huc-dcr      hpac-ttcr      hva-rr 

The  O.  n.  German  lias  andcra,  other ;  hwcdar,  whether.  This  is  a  com- 
mon form  for  the  adjective  in  Sanskrit,  the  most  common  in  Greek ;  in 
Latin  and  Teutonic  only  as  in  Anglo-Saxon.  Latin,  in-tcr,  between  ; 
dex-tcr,  right ;  sims-tcr,  left.     ^  122,  h. 


Q4:     ADJECTIVES.— DOUBLE  COMPARISON.-HETEUOCLITES. 

(i.)  Parent  Speech  -ma,  -ta-ma.  Forms  on  pro,  fore;  scp,  seven; 
hin,  hind  : 

Sanskrit.  Greek.  Latin.  Gotliic.        O.  Saxon.     Ang.-Sax.     O.  Nor. 

in-a-tha-ma     7rpJ-j[io(r)         pri-muCs)  fru-ma      for-mo  ^  fl"]^^^  ^  ^"™' 

sap-ta-ma     f/?-to-/^o(r)    sep-tu-mu(s)    hin-du-ma    hin-de-ma   

The  O.  II.  German  has  frumi,  first.  This  is  a  common  form  in  Sanskrit; 
in  Latin,  suffixed  to  Comparative  jans^is  (§  123,  o),  it  makes  the  regu- 
lar -issimo <iis-timo  by  assimilation  (^  35).  After  I  and  r  it  is  suffixed 
to  the  theme  and  assimilated  :  facil-limo,  easiest ;  pulcher-rimo,  hand- 
somest. In  the  other  languages  it  is  found  only  as  in  Anglo-Saxon.  For 
numerals,  see  ^  140. 

127.  Double  Compaeison  is  found  chiefly  with  relics  in  -der, 
-er,  and  -m  (§  126) :  A-r,  eve,  &-r-er,  -or,  ie-r-est;  vef-ter,  sefter-ra 
ywftera,  cvf-ter-mest  (Rask),  vcf-tem-est;  Ises,  less,  Ivas-sa,  Ises- 
dst,  -est;  for-ma,  fi/r-jn-est,  and  see  §  129. 

(«.)  Accuinulation  of  signs  of  comparison  is  a  striking  fact  through  all  the 
languages.  (1.)  Repetition  of  the  suffix  for  emphasis:  -raroe  <  ra-ra,  reg- 
ular Greek  superlative  ;  Irish  ma-ma  ;  O.  H.  German  bezeroro,  more  better 
(Shakespeare);  crercra, more  sooner,  etc.;  Parent  Speech  ta-ma  (^  126,  S). 
(2.)  New  suffix  after  Relics  (^  126)  :  Gothic  af-tu-m-is-ta ;  Anglo-Saxon 
a'f-te-m-es-t ;  a.i:iermost  =  af-\-ta-{-ra-\-7na-^jans-\-ta,  a  heaping  of  radicles 
which  illustrates  their  force  as  signs  of  comparison  (§  123,  a).  Emphatic 
double  comparison  abounds  in  early  English  :  Shakespeare  has  more  braver, 
more  fairer,  most  best,  most  boldest,  most  unkindest,  etc. 

(b.)  The  English  superlative  ending  -most  in  aftermost,  and  the  like,  is 
simulation  of  a  connection  with  most.     ^  42,  2. 

128.  Heteroclitic  forms  abound  from  themes  in  -ir  and  -or,  -ist, 
-ost:  s£l,  good;  -ra,  -la,  {sel) ; — est,  -ost;  rice,  rich;  rtcest,  ricost ; 
glrvd,  glad  ;  glxdra,  gledra,  etc.  (§  125).  Some  have  themes  Avith 
and  without  double  comparison:  Iset,  late;  Imtra;  latost,  late- 
mest;  sat,  late;  sMra  {stct,  sidor) ;  std-dst,  -est,  -mest. 

129.  Defective  are  the  following.  Words  in  capitals  arc  not 
found. 

(1.)  3Iixed Boots. 
Positive. 

BAT 


good, 


ryfel 
had,     \  peor 
(  sam- 


(pel) 

(yfele) 


COMPARATIVK. 

betera,  betra,  §  124 
ba3ttra,§125  (bet) 
pyrsa,  (pyrs), 

§  123,  Z> 
sajmra,  §  124 


Superlative. 

betst,bet6st,-ast 

(betst) 
j  pyrst,  pyrresta, 
( (pyrst), (pyrrest) 

s&mest 


DEFECTIVE  ADJECTIVES.— DECAY  OF  ENDINGS.  65 

Positive.  Compakative.  Supeelative. 


I  MA      ;  (  inara,  (ma) 


maest,§  124;  123, a 

(  I..-ES  (Gotb.  /asuvs)     Iressa (l3es),§ 35,^  ( ]£es-ast,  -est,  -t 
(2.)  From  Adverbs  of  time  and 2ylace  (compare  §§  126, 127) : 

cre.erst,]''^^  I  (^r-6r, -uv)  T     ''^ 

after,     j  af-,  a.f-=of,  [  (  c^f-tem-est 

ward,    \  refterpeard  j  ^"^^  '^'^  ^  "^""^'^  |  a^fter-mest,  §  127 

else,          (elles)  (ellor),  elra               

fore,        forepeard,  (fore)    fyrra 
far,         feor,  (fyr)  fyrre,  (fyr) 

forth,      ford:peard,  (ford)   (furd-6r,  -ur) 


,  ,  .    ,  (  hmde(r)peard,  )  n  •    ^    \ 

behind,  j  ,,  .    /  (^         '  -  (lunder) 

(  (hmdan)  )  ^  ' 

inner^       innepeard,  (in)  innera 


middepeard, 

(mid) 

depca 

'nord) 
uidepeard, 


mid, 


north     -!  ^^o^^^epc^^-^"!'  \ 
nortn,    ^       ^^^^^_^^       ^ 


""'^^'"'^  '      (nide) 
tipper,      ilfepeard,  (up) 


(nord-ur) 
uid-ra, 


for-ma  >  (fyrmest), 
fyrst,  fruma,  §  51 
fyrrest  (eo>y) 

(furd-um), 

ford-m-est 

hinduma, 

binde-ma,  §126,5 

inne-ma,  (-m-est) 

med-ema  (-uma?) 

mid-m-est 

nord-m-est 
( nidema,  §  126 


(uid-or,  -er  (i  >  eo)  ( nide-m-est  (i>eo) 

;S)  [yf(e)-m-est,il24 

I  ..-    ^^^  \\  ^^tema,  <itmest, 
iitra,  (uttor,tltor)  ^  .     /    ^  ^ 

'^  '         '  \  yt-(e-)m-est,§124 


outer,        \ltcpcard,  (ul) 

So  sUdemesf,  edstemcst,  pestemest,  soutli-,  east-,  Avest-most 


Decay  of  Endings.  —  ( 1  _),  Declension  :  L-jyamon,  strong,  sing.  masc. 
— ,  -es,  -en,  -ne ;  fern.  — ,  -re,  -re,  -e ;  neut.  — ,  -es,  -en,  — ;  plur.  -<?,  -re, 
-en,  -e;  but  n,  s,  r  may  drop.  Weak,  -e,  -en,  as  in  ^  102. — Ormulum, 
strong,  sing.  — ,  plur.  -e.  Wcalc,  -e. — Chaucer,  monosyllables  as  in  Orm., 
others  undeclined.  —  Shakespeare,  no  declension. 

(2),  Comparison:  Layamon,  Ormulum,  -re,  -est. — Chaucer  (  =  Modern 
English),  -cr,  -est. 

E 


Ga 


PRONOUNS. 


V.  PRONOUNS  {Melational Names,  §  56). 
130.  Personal  Pronouns  {Relational  Substantives). 


Sing.— 1.7. 

N.  ic 

G.  rain 

D.  me 

A.  mec,  mo 

V.  

I.    me 
Plural. — 

m  pe 

G.   tiser,  lire 

Z>.  tis 

A.  Hsic,  lis 

K  

I.    Us 

Dual. — 

iv:  pit 

(r.  uncer 
X>.  iiuc 


2.  ^/iOt<. 

Jjiii 
l3e 
l)ec,  1)0 

l3ll 
1)0 

eoper 
eop 

eopic,  eop 
go 
eop 

git 

incer 

iuc 

A.  uncit,  uuc    incit,  inc 

V.  git 

I.    i;dc  inc 


3.  he, 

ho 

liis 

luni 

liine 

Lini 


she, 
lieo 
liire 
Lire 


it. 
hit 
his 
him 


hie,  hi,  heO    hit 


hire 


him 


hic,  hi,  heu  hie,  hi,  heo  heo,  hie,  hi 

heora,  hyra  heora,  hyra  heora,  hyra 

him  him  him 

hie,  hi,  lieu  liie,  hi,  hc6  heo,  hie,  hi 


him 


liim 


him 


Sl"NG.   NOM. 

P.  Sp. ..  i-s,  i-ja,  i-t 

Latin  ...  i-s,  ea,  i-d 

Gothic,  i-s,  si,  i-ta 

0.  Sax.,  hi,  siu,  i-t 

0.  II.  G.  i-r,  siu,  i-z 


Genitive. 

i-sja 

ejus 

is,  izos,  is 

is,  ira,  is 

sin,  irii,  is 


Pi. UK.  NOM. 

aj-as 
ii,  eiE,  ea 
eis,  ijos,  ija 
sii,  sia,  siu 
sie,  sio,  siu 


O.Norse  hann, hon,  —  4  '        ".'- 

(.    nar, —    J 


(a.)  Other  Forms. — (1  and  2),  pyt ;  gyt;  ungc ;  unccr  not  found;  us- 
ser,  ussic.  (3),  i>y  (bad  spelling)  :  hys,  hyt,  etc. ;  i>eo,  i>ie  (breaking, 
^  33)  :  heom,  plur.  (sing,  prose)  luerd,  hiene;  i>y  (bad  spelling)  :  hy ;  hi 
>  hig  (dissimilated  gemination,  ^  85,  a  ;  27,  5)  ;  io  for  eo  ;  io,  ea,  for  e6  (or- 
thographic) :  hiord,  hid,  hed.  Nom.  sing.  fem.  hie,  hi,  inst.  sing.  masc.  heo 
<Chy  in  heo-ds-g  (Latin  hodie),  to-day  ;  hird  (not  in  Groin)  ^ heard. 

Northumbrian  for  final  c  has  h,  ch,  sometimes  g:  ih,  ich;  meh,  mech, 
mehe ;  usih,  usig,  etc. ;  for  final  e  thus  :  gie,  gee,  gie,  etc. ;  woe=uoe=^pe; 
user^urer;  for  eopcr  appear  iwer,  iuere,  iuerrx,  iurraie) ;  for  eop  appear 
iuh,  iowh,  iouh,  iwh,  iu,  ou;  for  eopic  appear  iuih,  iuigh,  iwih.  Third  Per- 
son:  for  heo,  hie  appear  hid,  hix,  hiu;  hire^hir;  for  heard  appear  heard, 
hiord,  hiard. 

(b.)  The  pronouns  are  clusters  of  radicles,  some  of  which  lure  beyond 
the  Indo-European  family ;  the  c  {k)  of  ic  and  of  Hebrew  dndki  have  been 
claimed  to  be  plainly  from  the  same  radicle ;  so  the  dental  of  pH,  thou,  and 
Hebrew  attdh,  the  guttural  of  he  and  Hebrew  Au',  the  nasal  of  me  and  He- 
brew dndki. 


PERSONAL  PRONOUNS. 


67 


(c.)  The  mode  of  growth  from  the  radicles  in  the  Indo-European  family 
may  be  studied  in  the  following : 


Sing. — 

Sanskrit. 

Greek. 

Latin. 

Gothic. 

0.  Sax. 

0.  H.  G. 

0.  Norse. 

Norn... 

ah  dm 

iy(i> 

ego 

ik 

ic 

ih(ihha) 

ek 

Gen.... 

ma-ma  (me) 

iixov 

(mei) 

(meina) 

(min) 

min 

min 

Dot.... 

ma-hjam(me) 

ilxoULoc.) 

mihi 

mi-s 

mi 

mir 

mer 

Ace 

ma-m,  ma 

iflE 

me 

mi-k 

mic,  mi 

mih 

mik 

Voc. ... 

Inst.... 

Plural. 

ma-ja 

iLoc.) 

{ 

iAblat.)  I 
me-d,  mei 

(Dat.) 

(Dat.) 

(Dat.) 

(Dat.) 

A^om... 

asme',  vajam 

i^jXliQ 

nos 

veis 

wi,  we 

wir 

ver 

Gen.... 

(asmakam)nas 

y'lfiwv 

nostrum  (tri) 

(unsara) 

user 

unsar 

var  (vor) 

Dat.... 

asma'-bhjam,  nas 

;     vfuv 

no-bis 

unsis,  uns 

us 

uns 

OSS 

Ace... 

asma'n,  nas 

wag 

nos 

unsis,  uns 

us 

unsih 

oss 

Dual.— 

- 

Norn... 
Gen.... 
D.&I. 

ava'm 

ava-jos,  nau 

ava'-bhjam,  nau 

VW,  VWL 

vi-t 

ugkara 

ugkis 

wi-t 

uncero 

unc 

(wi-z) 
unchar 
(unch) 

vi-t 
okkar 
okkr 

vCiiv 

Ace... 

ava'm,  nau 

VliJ,  VUll 

ugkis 

unc 

(unch) 

okkr 

In  Sanskrit  there  are  seemingly  five  themes  :  (1),  ma,  me  ;  (2),  aha  < 
ma-{-ga  (-^a^Sansk.  -ha,  -gha^-Gieek  -ye  (tyw-y£):=Gothic  -k(c)  is  an 
emphatic  enclitic).  (3),  Plural,  va<^ma,  labial  shifting,  §  41,  b;  (4), 
a-sma<ima-\-sma=-\-\-he:=\ve.  (5),  Dual,  a-va<Cma-\-dva=l-\-i\vo=: 
we  two.     Nas,  nau,  from  masin-\-,  mdv-\-,  in  oblique  cases. 

Anglo-Saxon  ic<^maga  by  aphaeresis  of  m  (^  43),  shifting  of  a>i  and 
g^c  (^  41 ;  apocope,  ^  44).  mtn<Cnnna,  a  possessive  adjective  -na:  mc 
<^mcr  (compensation,  ^  37)  <^mir  (-r  dative  sign, as  in  adjective,  ^  104,  c) : 
me<^mec,  §  37  (-c  same  as  in  ic ;  c<iam,  precession,  §  41).  Plural  : 
peeper  (compensation,  ^  37)  <ipis  (shifting,  §  41);  -s<^sma  (apocope, 
§  44)  :  user <C.uns-erd,  us<Cuns  (^  37)  <^muns  (^  43)  <^vians  (§41) 
<^masm  (metathesis  and  dental  assimilation,  §§  51,  35)  ;  -rd,  genitive 
ending,  §  104,  c.  Dual:  pit<Cpi-{-tpa,  we  two;  uncer  is  a  variation  of 
unser;  s:=h^k{c):  Sanskrit  5ma=Prakrit  Ama;  7t<C^' (shifting,  §  41). 
In  uncit,  -t  as  in  pit. 


(J.)  SiXG. —   Sanskrit. 

Greek. 

Latin. 

Gothic. 

O.  Saxon. 

0.  H.  G. 

O.N. 

Norn... 

tva-m 

TV,  <XV 

tu 

],u 

thu 

an 

fu 

Gen.... 

tiiva  (te) 

nolo,  (Toij 

(tui) 

(feina) 

(thin) 

(din) 

fin 

Bat.... 

tu-bhjam  (tvc,  tc) 

aoi  (Loe) 

ti-bi 

fis 

thi 

dir 

fer 

Ace... 

tva-m,  tva 

Tt,  as 

te 

fik 

thic,  thi 

dih 

pik 

Voc. ... 

(Nominative.) 

(A'OTO.) 

(Nom.) 

(;Vom.) 

(Nom.) 

(Nom.) 

(Nom.) 

Inst.... 

tva-ja. 

(Loe) 

All.  te-(l,  te 

(Dat.) 

(Dat.) 

(Dat.) 

(Dat.) 

Plural 

. — 

Nom... 

JUS  me,  jujam 

vfinc 

vos 

JUS 

gi,  g« 

ler,  ir 

er,  fcr 

Gen.... 

(jus'ma'kam)  vas 

VjiUV 

v6strum(-tri) 

izvara 

iwar 

iwar 

3'Sar 

Dat.... 

jus'mabhjam,  vas 

VfllV 

■  vo-bis 

IZVIS 

lU 

lU 

ySr 

Ace... 

jus'man,  vas 

t'l^tac 

vos 

1ZV13 

lU 

iwih 

y-5r 

68 


PRONOUNS— REFLEXIVES. —POSSESSIVE  S . 


Ddal. —          Sanskrit. 

Greek. 

Norn...           juva'm 

(T0W,  a<pil)i 

Gen....     juva-jos,  vim 

D. & /.  juva-bbjim, vam 

(TpUltV 

Ace...      juva'm,  vam 

Gf(t>,  a^wi 

Gothic. 

0.  Sa.xon. 

O.  H.  G. 

O.N. 

(ju-t) 

git 

(jiz,  iz) 

it,  fit 

igqara 

(incero) 

(inchar) 

ykkar 

igqis 

inc 

(inch) 

vkkr 

igqis 

inc 

(inch) 

ykkr 

Radicle  stem  in  Parent  Speech,  tu<^tva;  plural,  tu-\-sma^=ihou  and  he; 
dual,  tu  -\-  dva  =  thou  +  two  =^yoa  two.  Anglo-Saxon,  pu<Ctu  (shifting, 
§  41)  ;  cop<inip<Ciu  (quasi-gemination,  ^  117)  z=ju<^tu,  irregular  soften- 
ing of  t.    Compare  assibilation,  ^  24.     Other  forms  like  those  of  ic. 

(e.)  Three  stems  show  in  the  third  person,  i,  hi,  sia.  The  Anglo-Saxon 
alone  has  hi  throughout.  In  English,  she  and  thei/,  their,  them  have  come 
in  from  the  demonstrative  (^  133)  hit^  it;  its  is  a  late  formation.  The 
third  personal  pronoun  is  a  weak  demonstrative.  In  the  cases  not  given 
above,  each  language  uses  the  endings  of  its  demonstrative  given  on  page  57. 

131.  Reflexives  are  supplied  by  the  personal  pronouns  with 
self  (self),  or  Avithout  it.  iSelf  has  strong  adjective  endings  like 
blind  (§  103) ;  in  the  nominative  singular  also  weak  selfa:  ic  self, 
ic  selfa,  myself;  mm  selfes,  of  myself;  one  self  an,  me  selfne,  etc. ; 
piX  selfa,  thyself,  etc. ;  he  selfa,  himself,  etc. 

(a.)  Sm  is  the  possessive  of  an  old  reflexive  si,  se  (^  132, 5).  Self,  Gothic 
.lilba,  is  used  throughout  the  Teutonic  tongues:  <^si-\-(lib?'),  life,  soul;  so 
Sanskrit  atman  (soul)  and  Hebrew  nephes'  are  used  as  reflexives. 

(b.)  Silf  is  found  in  Anglo-Saxon:  '^self{a)  (a-umlaut,  §  32, 1),  seolf, 
siolf  (breaking,  ^  33),  sylf  (graphic  variation).  Demonstrative  selfan  is 
found :  py  selfan  dwge,  the  same  day  (^  133). 

132.  PossESSivES  are  mvn,}/^!,  stn,  User,  lire,  eoper,  uncer,  in- 
cer.  They  have  strong  adjective  endings  (§  103).  Those  in  -er 
are  usually  syncopated  (§  79).  User  has  assimilation  of  r>s 
(§35,i?). 

Plur. — 

Ma3c.  &  Fem.     Neut. 

(iisere)  ilsse  (a)    fiser 

(userra)  fissa 

(ilserum)  ussum 

(ilsere)  usse  fiser 

(usere)  usse  user 

(userum)  ussum 


Sing.— 

Masculine. 
iV.  fiser 
G.  (fiseres)  fisses 


Feminine.  Neuter. 

fiser  user 

(userre)  fisse    (useres)  usscs 


D.  (userum)  fissum  (userre)  usse  (userum)  ussum 

A.  fiserne  (usere)  usse  fiser 

V.  fiser  user  fiser 

/.    (fisere)  fisse  (fiserrc)  usse  (usere)  usse 

Northumbrian  has  iiscnne  <^uscrne,  iisra.      Ure  is  a  syncopated  form  of 
iiser. 

(a.)  They  have  the  same  themes  as  the  genitives  of  the  personal  pro- 
nouns.    Analogous  forms  are  found  throughout  the  Indo-European  family  : 


PRONOUNS.— DEMONSTRATIVES.  G9 

jnine,        thine,         his,            our,             your,        of  us  two,    of  you  two, 
Sanskrit,  madija   tvadi'ja   svadi'ja   asmadi'ja  jus'madi'ja     


Greek.... 

ifiog 

avQ 

og 

tifitrep-os 

vixtTcp-og 

vo}tTep-og 

cr0wirtp-o 

Latin  .... 

meus 

tuus 

suus 

noster 

Tester 

Gothic... 

meins 

Jjeins 

seins 

unsar 

izvar 

ugkar 

igqar 

0.  Saxon 

niin 

thin 

sin 

usa 

iwa 

unca 

inca 

0.  Norse 
0.  H.  G. 

minn 
miner 

Jjinn 
diner 

sinn 
siner 

Yarr 
unsarer 

ySarr 
iwarer 

okkar 

ykkar 

The  n  {mei(n)s)  and  r  (unsa(r))  have  been  thought  variations  of  Sanskrit 
dental  d  {ma{d)i'ja),  but  see  §  130,  c.    Fries,  min,  thin,  sin,  use,  unser,  etc. 

.  (b.)  Sin  is  from  obsolete  se  (self)  found  in  Gothic,  Old  Saxon,  etc.,  de- 
fective like  Latin  sc,  Greek  e.  It  does  not  cover  the  full  meaning  of  the 
possessive  of  the  third  person ;  hence  in  Low  German  dialects  the  forma- 
tion of  new  possessives  :   English,  his,  her,  their,  its,  etc. 

133.   Demoxstkatiyes, 
Definite  Article. 

1.  that  nnd  the.  \  2.  this. 

JVbm.  se  sc6  l^aat  l)es  \)e6s  ]jis 

Gen.    ])aes  }xere  ])ces  ];)isses  ])isse  ])isses 

Dat.    J)ara,  J^rem  latere  l:)am,  l^)03m  |)issum.  ])isse  ])issum 

Ace.    l)one  l)a  IxTst  })isnc  Ixis  ])is 

Voc.     

Inst.    \)j  l)Jei-e  1)}',  l^*^  Ms  l)isse  l^ys 

Nbm ]3a  •  l^as 

Gen ]3ara,  ])aivCi  ].:)issa 

Dat l^am,  ])xm  J)issum 

Ace Inl  l)as 

Voc 

Inst l)ara,  l>sbm  l)issura 

(1.  se.) — Other  Forms:  sing.  gen.  ])CS,  pare,  para?  ds^t.  J)dm,  pivm, />an, 
pon;  zee.  J)xnc, pane;  insi.  pi;  [Aur.  gen.  pcard,d^t. pan,  pan.  Northum- 
brian :  sing.  nom.  de ;  did,  dm,  dij ;  dxt.  Compare  Old  H.  German,  ^  104, 
and  Old  Saxon  thie  ;  thiu ;  that.     Add  nom.  sio,  sid  for  sea. 

(a.)  The  changes  of  stem  a  to  a?  and  o  are  the  common  shiftings 
(^41,1).  The  lengthening  of  the  stem  in  the  feminine  singular  and 
throughout  the  plural  was  to  be  expected  (^  64,  2  ;  88,  c).  The  O.  Norse 
has  sing.  nom.  5a,  su,  pat ;  gen.  pess,  pcirrar,  pess ;  da.t.  peim,  peirri, 
pvi ;  ace.  pann,  pa,  pat ;  plur.  nom.  peir,  pxr,  pan  ;  gen.  peirra  ;  dat. 
peim ;  ace.  pa,  pxr,  pan.     O.  Fries,  thi,  thiu,  thet ;  thes,  there,  thes,  etc. 


70  TRONOUNS.— RELATIVES.— INTEEROGATIVES. 

(i.)  For  forms  in  other  languages  and  discussion  of  case-endings,  see 
§  104.  Heyne  gives  l>xra,  piim  only  as  masculine,  but  p&rd  bocd,  ^1- 
fric,  2, 114  ;  pii-rd  pingd,  ib.  2, 130  ;   sec  pAm  in  Grein. 

(2.  pes.) — Other  Forms:  without  gemination  of  5  in  masculine  and  neu- 
tet, pises,  pisiun,  pise;  i>y  :  Jji/s,  pysses,  pysse,  etc. ;  sing.  nom.  f.  pms; 
gen.  and  dat.  f.  pisere'^pisrc,  pissere  ;  dat.  pisson,  pissan,  piosum ;  inst.  m. 
and  n.  pis,  pise,  pisse  adjective  form,  {peos=^0.  Saxon  pius ;  Grimm,  Ett- 
miiller,  Heyne  —  examples  given  are  all  false  readings);  plur.  nom..  p&s; 
gen.  piscrd,  Jjisserd.  Northumbrian:  sing.  nom.  dws,  dius,  dis ;  gen.  and 
dat.  f.  divsscr,  disscr ;  dat.  m.  dassum ;  ace.  diosnc,  da,  dis. 

(a.)  Pes  is  an  emphatic  demonstrative  from  J)a-\-sja.  In  Gothic,  the 
same  force  is  obtained  by  affixing  -uh  (Latin  -ce,  -que :  hi-c,  quis-que)'. 
In  the  other  Germanic  tongues  analogous  forms  to  pes  are  found :  O. 
Saxon  sing.  nom.  these,  the-su  (thius),  thi-t;  gen.  the-sas,  the-sara, 
the-sas ;  dat.  the-sumu,  the-saru,  the-sumu;  ace.  the-san,  the-sa,  thi-t ; 
inst.  n,  thius;  pi.  nom.  ace.  the-sa,  thius ;  gen.  the-saro ;  dat.  the-sun  ; 
O.  H.  G.  di-se-r,  etc.  The  Anglo-Saxon  has  lost  all  the  sja  except  -s  in 
the  nominative.  In  pisse,  pissu  there  has  been  syncope  and  assimila- 
tion of  r>s,  as  in  usse,  ussd  ( ^  133) ;  in  pisses  and  pissum,  gemination 
of  s  through  gravitation.  The  genitive  and  dative  masculine  are  writ- 
ten pretty  regularly  with  gemination  of  s — not  always. 

(3.)  I7c,  pylc.)  spylc :  ylca,  same,  has  only  weak  forms ;  pylc, 
5p2/fc,  such,  have  only  strong,    [y—i—e.)   pys-ltC^pyllic,  strong. 

(a.)  Ylc<Cy-{-lic ;  y<^?,  demonstrative  Ae;  -Z/c, like;  so /y-Zic, analogous 
to  Latin  td-lis,  Greek  rrj-Xlicog,  Sanskrit  td-dr'ks'a ;  spy-lie,  Gothic  svc- 
leiks,  etc.,  English  such. 

(4.)  Self,  see  §  131.  (5.)  Same,  adv.  same,  Sanskrit  pron.  sama 
{sa-^-ma),  Greek  o^o-c,  Latin  simi-lis,  Gothic,  Old  Saxon  sama, 
Old  Norse  sam-r.  Old  II.  German  samo. 

(6.)  Geo7id,  adv.  yon,  Gothic  ^von.  Jams,  that  (§  255,  a). 

134.  Relatives,  —  (1.)  se,  sco,  })wt,  who,  which,  that,  is  de- 
clined as  when  a  demonstrative  (§  133).  (2.)  Jm  used  in  all  the 
cases,  both  alone  and  in  combination  with  se,  seo,  pcct,  or  a  per- 
sonal pronoun,  is  indeclinable.  (3.)  spd,  so,  used  like  English  as 
and  Old  German  so  in  place  of  a  relative,  is  indeclinable. 

135.  Interrogatives  are  Jipd,  who;  //pa?f/er,  which  of  two; 
hpylc,  hMlc,  of  what  kind.  They  have  strong  adjective  endings ; 
hpseder  is  syncopated  (§  84.) 


PRONOUNS.— INDEFINITES.  7^ 


Sing. Masc.  rem. 

Nbm.  hpa        

Gen.    hpajs      

Dat.     lipara      

Ace.     hpone 

Voc.     


Neut. 

Masc.          Fem. 

Neut. 

bpaet 

Sanskrit,  ka-s       ka, 

ka-t 

hpoes 

Greek  . . .  K:o-c>7roc>7r6-&j, 

,irov,&tc. 

lipaui 

Latin . . .  qui-s      quae 

quo-d 

hpffit 

Gothic  . .  hva-s     livo 

hva 

O.Saxon  hue        

hua-t 

iip.y 

0.  Norse,  hva-r     

hva-t 

Sing.— 

Masc. 

Fem. 

Neut. 

Norn.  . 

.   an 

an 

an 

Gen.  . . 

lines 

anre 

anes 

Dat.  . . 

anum 

SLure 

^mini 

Ace.  . . 

.   anwe,  &mie 

ane 

an 

Voe.  . . 

.   an 

an 

an 

Inst.  . . 

.      ane 

'dure 

ane 

Inst,     hpam      — 

Other  Forms  :  dat.  hpcem,  hpan,  hpon,  hpdm,  hp&m ;  ace.  hpxne ;  inst. 
Iipi,  hpig,  hu.     Northumbrian  :  huu,  huA,  huxtd,  huxd. 

(a.)  For  shifting  of  the  stem  radicle,  see  ^  41,  i?;  for  case-endings,  ^  105. 
{b.)  Hpxder<^hpd,  comparative  form,  ^  126,  a.     Hpylc<i.hpy-\-lic  like 
pylc<ipij-\-ric,^  \ZZ,Z,a.     (y  =  i=ze.)    0.  Flies,  hiva — hwet. 

136.    iNDEFIlSnTES. 
(1.)  The  Indefinite  Article  an<«w,  one. 

PlUE. —  M.,F.,N. 

ane 
txird 
knmn 
ane 
ape 

A  weak  sing.  nom.  ana,  dne(a),  ane,  is  also  found,  and  undeclined  forms. 
The  vocative  and  plural  mean  sole,  some,  etc.  See  the  numeral  0,71, 
^  137,  a. 

(a.)  So  also  decline  nan,  none. 

(2.)  ^?iif/,  any  {dn-{-i(/),  and  nmnig,  none,  are  strong.  (3.) 
sitm^  some,  one  (akin  to  same,  §  133,  5),  is  strong.  (4.)  The  no- 
tional substantives  man  (man)  and  piht  (whit)  have  become  pro- 
nouns in  certain  uses;  for  their  declension,  see  §§  83;  100,/. 
They  simulate  pronominal  stems.  Compare  English  owe,  lohit 
(wh),  thing  (th),  §  40,  2.  Compounds  of  piht  f.  and  n.  are  neu- 
ter :  dpiht,  dpyht^  dpuht  >  (luht  >  dht,  opiht,  aught ;  ndpiht, 
naught.  Ual  (all),  manig  (many),  strong,  fed  (few),  sing,  indec. 
pi.  strong  (§  ll'i),fela  (much),  Igt,  hpon  may  be  added. 

(5.)  Compounds  oihpd^  hpwder,  -Uc,  decline  like  the  simples: 

(a.)  From  hpd:  gc-fipd,  C3.ch,  every  ;  ivg-hpd  {d-\-ge-^hpd),  exery;  clles- 
hpd  (Lat.  ali-quis),  any ;  spd-hpd-spd,  spd-hpxt-spd,  whoso,  wliatsoever  ;  hpxt- 
hpugu,  -hpigu,  -hugu  (Lat.  cum-qne,  ^  133,  2,  a),  anything.  Gehpd  has  fem. 
gen.  dat.  gshpxre,  gehpdre  (gchp6rei'),^n(\  masc.  forms  as  feminines. 


72  DECAY  OF  PRONOMINAL  ENDINGS. 

(b.)  From  hpxdcr  (^  135,  J):  d-hp!i'((cr  (any  owc)^  apdcr'^ador,  opder, 
vdcj;  other,  either  ;  nu-hpivdcr  (neither)  >7!w/'r/t'r,  nopdcr,  muter ;  ge-hpxder, 
either;  seg-hpxder{,d-\-ge-\-hpaidery^&gd€r,  cither;  spa-/!pxdcr-spa,v,-\nc\\- 
soever. 

(c.)  From  lie  («5>  133,  3,  a):  gc-hpilc,  -hpclc,  -hpylc,  any  body;  wg-hpilc 
\d-\-ge-\-hp>/-\-lic,  ^  135,  /^),  whoever  ;  hpilc-hugu,  hpilce-hugu,  any  one,  any- 
thing ;  spd-hpdc-spd,  whosoever  ;  pys-lic,  Jjus-lic,  pijllic,  py-lic,  of  this  sort ; 
iilc  {d'\-ge-\-Uc),  each,  all :  wlc,  elc,  ylc. 

(d.)  Analogous  compounds  arc  found  throughout  the  Teutonic  tongues, 
and  to  many  through  most  of  the  Indo-European  family,  / 

137.  Decay  of  Pronominal  Endings: — 

(a.)  Personal.  —  Layamon  and  Ormulum  have  Anglo-Saxon  forms,  also 
Lay.  ?c>ic/i>Orm.  ^,  Chaucer  sometimes  ich,  ik.  Pu>thou,late  Old  En- 
glish (§  38,  .4, 1)  ;  ^e>Lay.  :5e>ye  ;  eo/'>Lay.  :jOM>you.  Hv.,he6,hit: 
sing.  fem.  nom.,  Ang.-Sax.  chronicle  (A.D.  1140+)  5Cc&> Chaucer  sche^ 
she,  Northern  O.  Engl,  sclw  (O.  Sax.  sid,  O.  Norse  5m),  Lay.  i^eo,  ^e,  Orm. 
:^kd;  hit^Oim.  itt,  itj  dat.>acc.  Lay.  7j?m,  Aire >  Chaucer  hire  (monosyl- 
lable) >her  ;  plur.  nom.  ace.  Lay.  peo,  p>aie,  Orm.  nom.  yye:^^  >  they ;  gen. 
Lay.  heore,  hire,  Orm.  ^e:j^re  Qieore),  dat.>acc.  Orm.  peT^yn  {hemm)^ 
them  (^  130,  e) ;   her,  hir,  here  (their),  hem  (them),  are  still  in  Chaucer. 

(5.)  Posscssives. — Lay.  mm^ mt^ my,  ptn"^ pi y>  thy,  sometimes  before 
a  consonant;  other  endings  like  adjectives,  ^  129 +. 

(c.)  Demonstratives. — The  definite  article  in  Layamon  retains  its  declen- 
sion, except  dat.  lix^n  and  precession  of  d^cC^o^e;  but  indeclinable /e 
grows  more  frequent,  and  in  Orm.  is  established  as  in  Modern  English.  Pes 
changes  like  the  adjective  (^  129+)  :  plur.  ya5>^eo5> those  (^  38,  A,  1). 
Ormulum  sing,  piss  (this),  plur.  pisse  (these)  ;  and  sing,  patt  (that),  plur.  pd 
(those).     Chaucer  this,  plur.  these;  that,  plur.  tho. 

(d.)  Relatives.  —  Layamon  pje,  Jmt  throughout,  also  fem.  and  plur.  7>a]> 
Peo;  Ormulum  patt  (=that)  throughout,  as  in  English  now.  For  the  change 
of  tvho,  which  to  relatives,  see  Syntax. 

(e.)  Interrogatives. — Layamon  lohd  C^w6),udics,  ivhdm  (_^wdm'),whdn 
(^ivdn),  neuter  lohxt ;  Ormulum  luhd,  tchds,  dat.  ^  ace.  wha7nm,  whatt ; 
O.  Engl.  <?>  o.     Hpilc,  hpxder,  like  adjectives,  ^  129+. 

(y.)  Indefinite  an  in  Layamon  is  declined  throughout,  sometimes  also 
nom.  dn'y>d,  and  oblique  cases  one.  Ormulum  has  only  masculine  endings; 
a,  a,  frequent.     Chaucer  no  inflection,  dn'^a,  as  now. 


NUMERALS. 


Cardinals. 


138.    NUMERALS 
Oemulum. 


1.  an 


ail 


f  tpegen,  tpa,  tu  | 
'1    <tpa  i 


Ordinals.  Symbols. 

I  forma  (fruma,  aresta)  }  j 


twa 


I  fyrsta, 
oder 


129 


}H-idda 

feoperda  (feorda) 
fifta 
sixta 


3.  ]3ri,  J)re6  lireo,  ]^)i'e 

4.  feoper  fowwerr 

5.  fif  fif 
G.  six  sexe 

7.  seofon  (syfone)  |     ,  J    s     '  |    seofoda  (-eda) 

8.  ealita  ehhte  eahtoda  (-eda) 

9.  iiigon  (-en)  ni^henn 

10.  t5"a,  teu  tenc,  (tenii) 

1 1 .  endleofan  (ellefne) 


nigoda  (-eda) 
teuda 


ir. 
III. 

IV. 

V. 

XL 

VII. 

VIII. 

IX. 

X. 


endleofta  (eo>u,  y,  e)   XL 


12.  tpelf 

13.  ]3re6t}''ne 

14.  feopertyne 

15.  fiftyne 
IG.  sixtj^ne 

17.  seofontj'iie 

18.  eahtatj'no 

19.  nigont5'ne 

20.  tpentig 

21.  an  and  tpentig 

30.  l^ritig,  l^rittig 

40.  fcopertig 

50.  fiftig 

CO.  sixtig 

70.  hundseofontig 

80.  hundeahtatig 

90.  hundnicrontig 


twellf 
]irittene 


sexteue 


twennti; 


tpelfta  XII. 

})re6te6da  XIII. 

feuperteoda  XIV. 

fifteuda  XV. 

sixteoda  XVI. 

seofonteoda  XVII. 

eahtateoda  XVIIl. 

iiigonteoda  XIX. 

tpentigoda  XX. 

J  an  and  tpentigoda  1  ^^tt-t 
1  tpenti2;uda  and  formal^  ^ 


l)ritti| 
fowweiTti^ 
fiffti^ 
sexti^ 
seofennti  ] 


tpentigu( 

];)i-itig(jda 

feopertigoda 

fiftiguda 

sixtigoda 

liundseofontigoda 

lumdealitatigoda 

]iundniQ:onti2:6da. 


XXX. 

XL. 

L. 

LX. 

LXX. 

LXXX. 

XC. 


100 


f hundteontig  1       ,         ,     ,,      ,       t,  a   ,.    a  + 
i,       ,  °  I       liunudredd      liundtcuntigoda 


Ihund 


101.  hund  and  an 


•  an    and  hundteunti 
I    goda 

I  hundteuntigoda  and  ( 
■    forma  J 


>CL 


ETYMOLOGY  OF  CARDINALS. 


Cardinals. 
110.  Imndeudlcofantig 
120.  hundtpelftig 
130.  IuukI  aud  J)nttig 
200.  tpa  hand 
1000.  ]3tisend 


OuMULUM.  Ordinals.  Symbols. 

hundeudlcofantigoda  CX. 

hundtpelftigoda  CXX. 

hund  and  ]^)ritiguda  CXXX. 

tpa  hundteontigoda  CC. 

J)Asennde     {not  found.)  M. 


(a.)  The  order  of  combined  numbers  is  indicated  by  the  examples.  The 
substantive  defined  is  oftenest  placed  next  the  largest  of  the  numbers. 

(J).)  Combined  numbers  are  sometimes  connected  by  edc  (added  to)  or  and 
governing  a  dative  :  pridda  cue  tpentigum  =  23d ;  sometimes  by  the  next 
greater  ten  and  pana,  Ixs,  or  butan  :  anes  pana  prittig,  thirty  less  one  ;  tpa 
Ixs  XXX,  two  less  than  thirty  ;  XX  butan  dn,^  393. 

(c.)  For  hund-  from  70  to  120,  see  ^  139,  e  ;  indefinites,  ^  136,  2. 

(d.)  The  unaccented  syllables  often  siilTer  precession,  sometimes  syncope, 
often  cacography. 


139.    ETYMOLOGY.— CARDINALS. 


Tarent  Sp. 

1.  ai-ua? 


2. 

dva 

3. 

tri 

4. 

katvai' 

5. 

kankan 

G. 

? 

8.  akta 

9.  navan 
40.  dakaii 


Sanskrit.  Greek.  Latin. 

c'ka  tie  <£-»'-£     oi-nos>unus 

dva  ^110  duo 

tri  Tpelc<Tpi    tres<tri 

,  ,  ,     r  rirrap-Ec    ^ 

katvai--)     ^     ,r     J- quatuoi- 
(.    </C£rl-aeJ 

paiik'an  tteV-e  quinquo 

s'as'  f'4'  sex 

saptun  tTTTci  septem 

as't'au  o/vTw  octo 

f  tvvia  <C     1 

navan     {       ,r  i  novem 

t     vt\av      J 

da9an       cei^a  decern 


Gothic. 

ai-n-s 

tvai 

J)rei-s 


O.  Saxon. 

e-n 

tuc-na 

thri-a 


firaf 
saihs 
sibun 
ahtau 

niun 

taihun 


fif 

sehs 

sibun 

ahto 

nigun 

teban 


O.  Norse. 

ei-nn 
tvci-r 
Jiri-r 


fidvor     fiwar      fior-ir 


fimni 
sex 
siau 
utta 

niu 

tiu 


Sanskrit.  Greek.  Latin.  Gothic. 

11.  e  ka-da(;^an  tv-otKa  un-decim  aln-lif 

12.  dva'-da9an  duj-Seica  duo-decim  tva-lif 

13.  trajo-da^an         rpiaKai-ctKa  tre-decim  jjrija-taihun 
20.  (d)viin-(da)94ti  (oF)f't-KO(Ti 
SO.  trim-9at               rpia-Kovra 


(d)vi-ginti    tvai-tig-jus 
tri-ginta       Jjreis-tig-jus 
70.  sapta-(da9a)tl     ijicofiij-Kovra  septua-ginta  sibun-tehund 

100.  -9ata  i-Karuv  -ccnti: 


Old  Saxon. 
ellif 
tue-lif 


tu  en-tig 
thri-tig 
ant-sibunta 


t  taihun-tubund )  C  (ant-tehunta) ) 
.-mrov  -centum      |  ^^^^^  ^^^^^  ^ 

120.  (%  100  +  20.    The  rp-eat  hundred  not  used.)    (tvalif-tehund)     (ant-tuelifta) 
1000.  saliasra  x'''^'o-'  millia  Jjusundi  thusundig 


Old  Norse. 

ellifu 

to-lf 

jjrcttian 

tu-ttug-u 

bria-tig-i 

sio-tigi 

f  tiu-tiu 

(hund-ra'j 
tulf-ti-u 
l-usund 


ETYMOLOGY  OF  CARDINALS.  75 

(a.)  The  numerals  are  clusters  of  radicles,  some  of  which  lure  beyond  the 
Zndo-European  family. 

1-10.  — An  (one)  <  pronominal  stem  ^  >  ai-?ia>  Sansk.  ena,  that ;  eha 
{e-(na)ka)1  ^  130,  6,  c.  Dva  (two),  dental  radicle  for  addition,  §  56.  Tri, 
tar,  fem.  tissar  (titar),  three  <  dental  radicle  ^  + emphatic  r;  compare  its 
force  in  comparison,  ^  123,  c,  and  in  ■\/iri,  to  go  further.  Katvar,  fem.  kata- 
sar  (ka-tatai-),  four,  =A'a  {<Ceka,  one)  -\-tpar  (_<Ctar,  titar,  three)  :  the  sym- 
bols for  four  are  composed  of  those  for  one  and  three  in  Sanskrit  and  kin- 
dred alphabets,  also  in  Egyptian.  Kan-kan  (five)  is  a  reduplication  indi- 
cating the  completion  of  one  {ka<C,eka)  count — one  hand.  For  reduplica- 
tion as  a  sign  of  completion,  see  Greek  Grammars  :  Crosby,  ^  179  ;  see  fur- 
ther below.  Aktan  (eight)  is  ak  (one)  4-superlative  -ta  (^  123, c),  the  highest 
count  of  fingers.  Navan  (nine)  is  akin  to  Sansk.  nava-s,  Greek  vt[o-c,  Latin 
novu-s,  Gothic  niu-ji-s,  Ang.-Sax.  nipe,  new,  now,  <Ciiu,  pronominal  stem  of 
interrogation,  negation,  stimulation ;  nine  begins  a  7iew  quaternion.  Dakan 
(ten)  <^dva-kan=.2y.b. 

(S.)  Well-marked  identity  with  the  Semitic  numerals  has  been  claimed  in 
e'ka,  Hebrew  ek'ad ;  s'as',  Hebrew  s'es',  six ;  saptan,  Gothic  sibun,  He- 
brew s'eba,  seven.  It  has  been  said  that  5'c5'=rs'e  +  5'e  =  3-t-3,  and  s'eha^:^ 
5'e-|-(ar)6a=34-4 ;  the  -tan  in  saptan  being  a  superlative,  as  in  a^ian,  fin- 
ishing the  count  of  possibly  a  week.  Kan  in  kan-kan  is  also  like  Hebrew 
kam-es',  five.  The  original  stem  for  five  has  been  also  thought  to  be  pan- 
kan,  and  to  be  from  Sanskrit  ^ant,  hand. 

(c.)  The  shifting  and  gravitation  in  coming  down  from  the  Parent  Speech 
is  generally  regular,  ^^  41, 38,  tables  in  ^^  18, 19  ;  Z;>^;>>/,  ^  41,  3,  A,B; 
iy-ig,  quasi-geminatioii,  ^  27,  5. 

(d.)  11-19.  —  'E'SDhEOFAti  <ian-{-lcofan<^tihan  (Lithuanic,  lika),  ten; 
^>e,  precession,  ^  38  ;  nl'^ndl,  dissimilated  gemination  of  n,  the  last  part 
of  which  changes  to  d  from  the  dropping  of  the  nasal  veil  to  send  breath  for- 
ward for  I  (^  27,  5  ;  50)  ;  t{<^clX>l,  unusual  shifting  :  'OSvcatvc^  Ulysses; 
dingua'^ lingua  (^  41,  J)  ;  h{<^k)^f,  shifting  as  in  katvar^ fidvor,  four  ; 
kankan^finf,  five,  etc.,  ^  41,3,  A,  5;  i'^eo,  breaking,  ^  33;  35,  2,  g. 
TpELF  <  tpd  -\-  Icofan  =  2  -|-  10  ;   threo-tync,  3  -|-  10,  etc.,  are  plain. 

(e.)  20-120. — TDENTiG<//)f5-cn  (i\\d.m)-\-tig<Cdakan  (ten),  2 X  10:  shift- 
ing, §  41,3,  A.  Similar  are  the  forms  in  -tig  up  to  (/nind)lpelftig^^l2X  10, 
the  great  hundred. 

60-120. — With  the  forms  in  -tig  from  three-score  to  the  great  hundred  is 
joined  hund.  Gothic  tchund  (Latin  -ginti,  Greek  -kovti,  Sanskrit  -(^ati)  < 
dakanta  <^dakan  (ten)  -|-  -ta  superlative,  as  in  saptan,  aktan  :  shifting,  ^  41, 
3,  A ;  nt^nd,  instead  of  nd,  through  influence  of  n ;  a>e,  progression  to 
d  and  shifting,  ^  18  ;  a'^u,  precession,  ^  38.  The  Gothic  has  sibun-tchund 
=  7  X  10,  taihun-t(:hund  =  10  X  10,  etc.  The  Anglo-Saxon  form  was  once 
hund-scofonta  (decade  seventh),  like  Old  Saxon  (h)ant-sibunta.  The  -ta 
changed  to  -tig  through  conformation  with  the  smaller  numbers,  and  hund-, 
whose  meaning  had  faded,  was  retained  as  a  sign  of  the  second  half  of  the 


76  DECLENSION  OF  NUMERALS. 

great  hundred  ;  when  counting  by  the  common  hundred,  it  is  omitted  :   an 
hund  manna  and  scofontig,  170  men. 

C/.)  100-1000. — Hl'ND,  //M?u/rcfi<C  Parent  Speech  dakan-dakanta,\\\\\c\\ 
would  shift  in  Anglo-Saxon  to  tihun-tihund  (§  41).  It  has  gravitated  to 
hund'^ hundred <^hundarc  (Latin  ccnturia)  -\- d,  as  in  cored,  legion  ;  coped, 
herd,  etc.  1000  is  expressed  by  so  different  words  in  the  different  tongues 
that  no  common  origin  can  be  found,  and  hence  it  is  believed  not  to  have 
been  in  the  Parent  Speech.  The  Lithuanic,  Slavonic,  and  Teutonic,  how- 
ever, agree:  hith.  tukslanti;  Slav,  tusantja;  Goi\\.  p{isundi<^tuk-<Cdakan 
(ten)  +  santi < kanti^ hund  (hundred)  =  lOX  100. 

140.  Okdixals  arc  superlative  forms,  except  oder,  second. 

(a.)  Fruma, /o?7?ia,  first,  see  ^  126+;  oder,  second,  ^  126,  a;  -da,  -la, 
-da  are  all  shiftings  of  superlative  -ta,  §  123,  c;  -tcoda  is  a  repetition  of 
te6da<ite6nda  (tenth) ;  -ij^o^fa,  Friesic  -tigosta,  O.  Norse  -tugasti,  O.  H. 
German  -zugosto  (no  examples  in  Gothic  or  Old  Saxon),  has  conformed  to 
the  smaller  and  more  frequently  recurring  numbers  in  -tcoda.  The  substan- 
tives hund  and  piisend  had  not  developed  ordinals  in  Anglo-Saxon. 

(b.)  The  formation  of  ordinals  is  similar  in  principle  throughout  the  Indo- 
European  family.  y 

Declension. 

141.  Cardinals.  —  1,  dn,  is  declined,  §  13G. 

iV;,yl.,K  2,  tpegen  tpa  tu<tpa     3,  lDrt(-y,-ie)  l)re6  J)re6  (-ia, -io) 

Gen tpegra,  tpega  Jjreora 

I>.,I?ist..  tpam>tp&m  Jirim  (-ym) 

Like  tpegen  decline  hegen.,  hd.,  bu,  "both. 

4-19. — Cardinals  from  feoper  to  fpelf,  and  ivoni  preo-tyne  to 
nigon-tpne,  are  used  as  indeclinable,  but  are  also  declined  like  i- 
stem  nouns  of  the  First  Declension  {byre,  §  84),  oftenest  "when 
used  as  substantives :  nom.  ace.  voc.  feopere,  gen.  fedperd,  dat. 
in'at. feoperum.  Such  forms  oi  ealita  are  not  found.  Tpne<te6ii^ 
umlaut,  §  32,  2. 

{a.)  Those  in  -tijne  have  also  sometimes  a  neut.  noni.  and  ace.  in  -u'^-o, 
or  -a:  fiflyn-u,  -o,  -a  (fifteen) ;  preoteno  (=thirteen).     (^ >»>€.) 
{b.)  They  are  quasi-adjectives  like  Dene,  §  80. 

20-120. — Forms  in  -tig  are  declined  as  singular  neuter  nouns: 
pritlg  (thirty),  gen. pritiges  /  or,  as  adjectives,  have  plural  gen. 
-rd,  dat.  -um :  prttigrd,  pritigum. 

100-1000. — Hund,  n.,  is  declined  like  pore?,  §  73;  hundred  2in(\ 
pUsend,  like  scip,  §  70 ;  Y>\.piise?id-u,  -o,  -e,  -a  (Psa.  Ixvii,  17),  §  393. 


THE  VERB.  77 

142.  Ordinals  have  always  the  regular  weak  forms  of  the  ad- 
jective, except  oder  (second),  always  strong.    Indefinites,  §  136,  2. 

143.  MuLTiPLiCATiVES  are  found  in  -feald  (fold)  :  anfeald,  simple  :  ipi- 
feald,  two-fold  ;  pusend-mxlum,  thousandfoldly. 

144.  Distributives  may  be  expressed  by  repeating  cardinals,  or  by  a 
dative  :  seofon  and  seofon,  seven  by  seven  ;  bi  tpdm,  by  twos. 

145.  In  answer  to  hoio  often,  numeral  adverbs  are  used,  or  an  ordinal  or 
cardinal  with  sut  (time)  :  xne,  once  ;  tpipa  (tpiga),  twice ;  J/npa  {piga), 
thrice  ;  priddan  side,  the  third  time  ;  feoper  sutum,  four  times. 

146.  For  adverbs  of  division  the  cardinals  are  used,  or  ordinals  with  dit-l  : 
on  preo,  in  three  (parts)  ;  seofedan  d&l,  seventh  part. 

147.  An  ordinal  before  Aea//(half)  numbers  the  whole  of  which  the  half 
is  counted :  he  pses  pa  tpd  gear  and  pridde  healf,  he  was  there  two  years 
and  (the)  third  (year)  half  =2^  years.  The  whole  numbers  are  usually  un- 
derstood:  he  rlcsode  nigonteode  healf  gedr,he  reigned  half  the  nineteenth 
year=18i  years.     A  similar  idiom  is  used  in  German  and  Scandinavian. 

148.  Sum,  agreeing  with  a  numeral,  is  indefinite,  as  in  English:  sume 
ten  gear,  some  ten  years,  more  or  less ;  limited  by  the  genitive  of  a  cardinal 
it  is  a  partitive  of  eminence  :  code  eahta  sum,  he  went  one  of  eights: with 
seven  attendants  or  companions. 


VERB. 

149.  The  notion  signified  by  a  verb  root  may  be  predicated  of 
a  subject  or  uttered  as  an  interjection  of  command,  or  (2)  it  may 
be  spoken  of  as  a  substantive  fact  or  as  descriptive  of  some  per- 
son or  thing.  In  the  first  case  proper  verb  stems  are  formed,  or 
auxiliaries  used,  to  denote  time,  mode,  and  voice ;  and  suffixes  (per- 
sonal endings)  are  used  to  indicate  the  person  and  number  of  the 
subject :  thus  is  made  up  the  verb  proper  or  finite  verb.  In  the 
second  case  a  noun  stem  is  formed,  and  declined  in  cases  as  a  sub- 
stantive or  adjective. 

150.  Two  Voices. — The  active  represents  the  subject  as  act- 
ing, the  passive  as  affected  by  the  action.  The  active  has  inflec- 
tion endings  for  many  forms,  the  passive  only  for  a  participle. 
Other  passive  forms  help  this  participle  with  the  auxiliary  verbs 
com  {am),  bedn,  pesan, peordan. 

(«.)  The  middle  voice  represents  the  subject  as  affected  by  its  own  action. 
It  is  expressed  in  Anglo-Saxon  by  adding  pronouns,  and  needs  no  paradigms. 

151.  Six  Modes. — The  indicative  states  or  asks  about  a  fact, 
the  subjunctive  a  possibility ;  tlie  inq^erative  commands  or  in- 


78 


VERB.— CONJUGATION.— CLASSES. 


treats ;  the  injinltives  (ami  gerunds)  arc  substantives,  the  parti- 
ciples adjectives.  Certain  forms  of  possibility  arc  expressed  by 
auxiliary  modal  verbs  with  the  infinitive.  They  need  separate 
discussion,  and  arc  conveniently  called  a  2>otential  mode. 

152.  Five  Tenses. — Present^  imj^er' feet,  future,  2^G'>'f Get,  l^^uper'- 
fect.  The  present  and  impcr'fect  have  tense  stems ;  the  future  is 
expressed  by  the  present,  or  by  aid  of  sceal  (shall)  or  jnlle  (will) ; 
the  perfect  by  aid  of  the  present  of  habban  (have)  or,  with  some 
intransitives,  bean  (be),  pescni  or  peordan  (be) ;  the  pluper'fect 
by  aid  of  the  imper'fect  of  habban,  beon,  pesan,  or  peontan. 

153.  Two  Numbers,  singular  and  plural. 

154.  Three  Persons,  j^rs^,  second,  and  third. 

155.  Stems  and  Themes. — A  tcmc-steni  is  that  part  of  a  verb 
to  which  the  signs  of  mode,  person,  and  number  were  added  in 
that  tense.  The  yevh-stem  is  that  to  which  the  tense  signs  were 
added.  The  theme  of  any  part  of  a  verb  is  so  much  of  it  as  is  un- 
changed in  the  inflection.     For  roots,  §  57. 

15G.  The  Principal  Parts  are  the  present  infinitive,  the  im- 
perfect indicative  first  ptersons,  and  the  passive  participle. 

157.  Conjugation. — Verbs  are  classified  for  conjugation  by 
the  stems  of  the  imperfect  tense. 

Strong  Verbs  express  tense  by  varying  the  root  vowel ;  weaJc 
verbs,  by  composition.  Strong  verbs  in  the  imperfect  indicative 
singular  first  person  have  the  root  vowel  unchanged,  or  changed 
hy  progression  or  by  contraction.     The  vowels  are 

Gompiosition. 
VI. 

+  de>te 

158.  Further  subdivision  gives  the  following  classes.  The  Roman  nu- 
merals give  Grimm's  numbers.  We  arrange  in  alphabetical  order  of  the 
stem  vowels  of  the  imperfect. 


Xo  change. 

Progression. 

Contraction 

COXJUGATION  I. 

II.,  III.,  IV. 

V. 

a  >  (ae,  ea) 

a,  ea,  6 

e6>e 

Hoot 
Class.                 Vo-.vel. 

1,  X.,XI.   a 

Present. 

i  (>e,  eo) 

Strong. 

Imperfect  Sing. 

a(>8e,  ea) 

a 

Plur. 

0) 

Passive  Participle 

e,  u>o 

2,     XII.      a 

i  (>e,  eo) 

a(>£e 

ea) 

u 

U>0 

3,    VIII.     i 

i 

a 

i 

i 

4,      IX.      u 

eo,  u 

ea, 

u 

o 

6,     VII.      a 

a(>ea) 

6 

6 

a 

6,   I. 


e6>e 


VI.    a>ea,  a,  ea,  SB,  e,  o 

Weak  (§§  160,  165,  d). 
affix -ia>-ie>-e> —         +cde>de>te 
affix  -6  >  -li ;  -ia  >  -ige,  -ie    +  ode 


eo>o 


a>e3,  a,ea,jfe,e,6 


+ed>d>t 
+6d 


GROWTH  OF  ABLAUT. 


79 


(a.)  The  variation  of  letters  in  the  five  first  classes  is  called  Ablaut;  it 
sprang  from  gravitation  {^  38)  and  compensation  (^  37).  Its  beginnings  may 
be  seen  in  the  other  Indo-European  tongues,  plainest  in  Sanskrit.  Sanskrit 
grammars  have  ten  conjugation  classes;  the  present  stems  are,  l.y+a; 
2.-\/;  3.  Reduplicated  V;  4.  V+ja;  5.  V+nw;  6.  V+a',-  7.  V  with  ?i 
inserted;  8.  V+zi;  9.  V+m;  10.  V+a^a.  Anglo-Saxon  strong  verbs 
correspond  to  the  first  or  sixth  class,  a  few  to  the  fourth ;  weak  verbs  to  the 
(4th  ?)  and  tenth.  Sanskrit  reduplicated  preterites  (perfects)  are  formed  all 
alike  from  the  root  by  prefixing  its  first  letters. 

Presents. 


Sense.      Root.    Conj.  Sanskrit.  Greek, 

throw.       kar       C.        kir-umi;  tir-a'mi< -/tar,  C,  siep  over. 

sit.  sad       C.        sid-ami  f's-o/uat 

7cnow,go.  k'it,  i   1,2.    k'et-ami,  c'-mi  tJ-jii 

show.         di9        G.        di^-ami,  Causal  base  de'9-aja  ta'K-vn/u 

Lo'dh-ami  TrtvO-oixai 

bhug'-a'mi,  Caiis.  hose  bliu'g'-aja  <pevy-u) 
vaks'-ami 

Perfects  >  Anglo-Saxon  Imperfect. 
Sanskrit. 


Latin.      Gothic.. 


sit-an 


Icnow. 

butUi 

1. 

bend. 

bhug' 

6. 

wax. 

vaks' 

1. 

sed-eoi 
i-re  ■( 
dic-o  J  teih-an 

I 
fug-ioj  biug-an 
vahs-jan 


extend,  tan        8.   ta-tfi'n-a 

fit. 

do. 

bind. 

see. 

show. 

bend. 

rcax. 


Greek.  |         Latin.       1      Gothic. 

Sense.   Root.  Conj.        Sing.  Plur.  |       Sing.        Plur.    |  Sing.      Plur.  |  Sing.     Plur. 

(ta-tin-ima>  \       .      ,  ,  „ 

<  ,  -^     j-        T(:-Ta(l)-Ka,     -K< 

eat!        6.    sa-su'd-a  sCd-imu  sijd-i, 

kar        8.   (Pks.)  kar-6'mi  kur-mas;  tu-tur-ju'm< -/tar,  s^cjj  over, 
bandh  9.   ba-bandh-a         ba-bandh-imi     

fol&-a  Tia-'iiev    vid-i, 

6e-deix-a,      -aixcv 

iri-'pevi-a,     -afxcv        fag-i 


te-tin-i,  -imus    than  tlicn-um 
lus    Eat      sct-uni 

-  i  ba 


vid  2.  (vi)vu'd-a 

dif  C.  di-dii'f-a 

bhug'  C.  bu-bho'g'-a 

vaks'  1.  va-vAks'-a 


(vi)vid-ma 
di-dif-ima 
bu-bhug'-ima 
va-vaks'-imii 


break,    bhrag' 
hake,      bhag' 


Greek  Present  ?pl]i-m)j.L 
Greek  Present  (pu>f-o) 


e-ppoiy-a, 
7ri-<pwy-a, 


frOg-i, 


band  bund-um 
-imus    vait    vit-um 

taih    t{a)ih-um 

-imus    biiug  bug-um 

Tohs  v6hg-um 

-imus    


Ang.-Sax.  hac-an;  boc,  boc-or- 


(b.)  The  Sanskrit  passive  past  participle  in  -na  is  accented  on  the  affix, 
and  the  root  in  Teutonic  has  precession  like  the  imperfect  plural.     ^  175. 

(c.)  Roots  in  a  have  conformed  to  the  analogy  of  the  Sanskrit  Sixth  Con- 
jugation Class,  those  in  i  and  u  to  that  of  the  first.  Since  accent  opens  the 
organs,  the  open  a  must  be  most  varied  by  its  absence  (i.e., by  precession), 
the  close  i  and  tc  by  its  presence — progression. 

(d.)  Comparison  of  Ablaut  : 
First  Conj 
Sanskrit  i ;        a,  6 ;  i  &  u 
Gothic  ..  i ;        a,  c ;   i  &  u 
0.,Sax..  i>e;  a,  a ;  e&  u>o 
O.Norse  i>e;  a,  a;  e&u>o 
O.n.G.  i>e;  a,  a;  e&o 

FotJETii  Conjugation,  Va  or  a. 
Greek  >j ;  w,  oj ;  ??.    Goth,  a ;  6,  6 ;  a.    (?.  ,S.  &  (9.  /T.  C.  a ;  6  >uo,  6  >uo ;  a.    0.  .V.  a ;  o,  6 ;  a  >e. 


OATION,  "v/a. 

2ni>  Coxj., 

Vi. 

3d  Conj.,  ^xl. 

i;             ^1,"; 

u 

0  ;    c,  i ; 

0  ;                 0,  u ; 

u 

i ;                a,  u  ; 

u 

ci ;  ai,  i ; 

iu  ;     '             au,  u  ; 

u 

i>e;          a,u; 

U>0 

1;    e,i; 

iu>io>u;  0,  u; 

0 

i>e>ia;a,u; 

U>0 

i ;    ei,  i ; 

iu>io>u;  au,  u; 

0 

i>e;         a,u; 

U>0 

1;    ei>e 

i;  i 

iu>io>u;  ou>6,u 

0 

80  COMPARISON  OF  ABLAUT.— CONTRACTION. 

(c.)  In  Sanskrit  these  vowel  changes  have  no  meaning,  bnt  arc  mostly 
mechanical  results  of  the  accent:  yet,  as  the  place  of  the  accent  depends  on 
the  weight  of  the  prefixes  and  suffixes  in  which  the  meaning  resides,  the 
vowel  changes  come  to  be  signs  of  this  meaning,  and,  as  the  prefixes  and 
sufiixes  decay,  the  sole  signs  of  it.  The  vowels  are  the  vehicles  of  emotion 
and  harmony  ;  to  make  them  signs  of  relation  fuses  thought  and  feeling,  and 
gives  power  for  oratory  and  poetry.  The  Teutonic  races,  like  the  Semitic, 
found  this  fusion  congenial,  and  in  the  earliest  Gothic  the  ablaut  is  already  a 
fundamental  law  of  the  language.  Physiology  teaches  that  progression  may 
spring  from  accent,  that  precession  may  take  place  in  unaccented  syllables 
of  course,  and  in  accented  syllables  from  compensation  or  shifting  :  compar- 
ison of  Anglo-Saxon  and  English  proves  these  possibilities  to  be  important 
facts  in  the  history  of  language  ;  the  Sanskrit  verb  shows  that  they  are  the 
facts  from  which  sprang  Ablaut.  ^^  37,38,41.  The  changes  of  the  i-roots 
and  w-roots  are  established  in  Sanskrit ;  those  of  the  a-roots  are  only  occa- 
sional in  the  present  even  in  the  sixth  class,  and  that  class  is  small.  It 
seems,  then,  that  a-roots  of  the  Sanskrit  sixth  class  were  drawn  to  ablaut  by 
conformation  with  i-roots  and  t<-roots,  and  that  c-roots  of  the  first  class  con- 
formed after  ablaut  was  fully  established,  except  such  as  attained  the  Fourth 
Teutonic  Conjugation,  where  the  whole  perfect  conforms  in  progression  to 
the  singular  0<^«. 

(/.)  In  Gothic,  the  present,  the  imperfect  plural,  and  past  participle  have 
the  same  precession  or  progression  as  in  Sanskrit  {^^  18,  38).  The  imper- 
fect singular  has  a  second  progression  in  the  second,  third,  and  fourth  conju- 
gations, because  it  has  gravitated  to  a  monosyllable. 

( 0-.)  The  e  of  imperfect  plural  tcnimd  is  from  ani,  a  compensative  drop- 
ping of  n  and  lengthening  of  a,  the  result  of  which  is  modified  by  i  —  a 
process  in  which  we  may  see  how  umlaut  and  contraction  run  into  each 
other. 

(A.)  Imperfect  plural  and  past  participle  ?«<«  is  in  liquid  and  double  con- 
sonant roots.  The  first  consonant  is  almost  always  a  liquid.  The  effort  for 
the  two  consonants  takes  the  place  of  accent  in  part.  For  the  assimilating 
effect  of  m,  n,  I,  r,  see  §  35,  2.  In  Sanskrit,  also,  a  goes  to  ti  in  connec- 
tion with  7',  in,  n. 

(i.)  In  Anglo-Saxon  and  the  other  Teutonic  tongues  the  changes  from 
Gothic  ablaut  are  explained  by  umlaut,  breaking,  and  shifting.    O.  Fries.,  38. 

159.  Contraction. — Roots  incapable  of  progression  kept  the  redupli- 
cation till  after  the  accent  had  shifted  to  it  (i^i  41,  4)  and  it  had  taken  pro- 
gression (Gothic  i  ■<  di) ;  and  in  Anglo-Saxon  they  had  contracted  the  re- 
duplication and  root  to  a  uniform  ed  or  e. 

(a.)  Such  roots  are  those  in  «+two  consonants,  and  in  vowels  hav- 
ing the  second  progression  (^  38).  Add,  also,  a  few  in  Gothic  5,  cii , 
perf.  di-6  :  let-an  (let),  lai-lut ;  lai-an  (blame), /«j-/o.  Hence  Grimm's 
Conjugation  Classes  from  the  vowels  of  the  present  and  (im)perfect: 


COXTEACTIOX.— COMPOSITION.  81 

Pres.      Perf.  Pres.     Perf.  Pres.        Perf.  Pres.         Peif. 

Gothic..,  (l)a  +  ,     ai-a ;      (2)  ai,     ai-ai ;     (3)      au-,      ai-au ;     (4)  e,  ai-e ; 

O.Saxon  {\)a.+,  ie>e;    (2)  e,    ie>e;    (3)      o,     io>ie;  (4)  a,        ie>e; 

0.  Norse  (\)  Vi+,       c;        (2)  ei,       c;       (3)     au,        io;  (4)  a,  e; 

O.fT.  G.  (l)a  +  ,     ia;       (2)  ei,      ia;       (3)ou>6,     io;  (4)  a,  ia; 

Ang.Sax.  {\)  a.+,  e6>e;    (2)  a,  e6>e;   (3)     eu,     c6>o;  (4)  a!>e,  e6<(j ;  j 

Pres.        Perf.  Piee.        Perf.  Pres.        Perf. 

Gothic...    (5)     ai,        ^i-6 ;        (G)       e,         ai-6;       ( — )        6,  ai-6. 

O.Saxon         0>uo,  io>ic. 


0.  Norse         6,  e. 

0.  H.  G.         uo,         io. 

Ang.Sax.         a.  +  p,  eo  +  p;  ci'>C',  e6>e;  6,       e6>C'. 

(3.)  Traces  of  the  process  of  contraction  are  found  in  O.  H.  German 
and  in  the  following  Anglo-Saxon  words  : 

Gothic  haldan,  hold,     jpert.  hdikald ;  O.II.G.  haltan,  heiaUyhialtyhialt. 

Gothic  stdutan,  strike,  perf.  stdistdut;  O. H.G.  stozan,  stcroz  (r<isi)'^steoz,  stioz. 

Gothic  kditan,    call,      ^^erf.  hdihdit ;  A.-Sax.  hdtan,  heht<,h^hdt. 

Gothic  redan,     rede,     pert,  rdiruth ;  A.-Sax.  r^dan,  re6rd<ira;r6d. 

Gothic  ^ton,      let,        T^^rt.  Idilot ;  A.-Sa.x.  l&tan,  kort  (r<l,  §  il,  3,  A)<lio- 

Gothic  /aiViraw,    leap,      pert.ldildik;  A.-Sax.  Idcan,  leolc-d&luc.  \_l6t. 

•  A.-Sax.  on-droidan,  on-dreurd,  dread. 

The  repeated  consonants  weaken,  and  finally  fall  out  and  let  the  vow- 
els together.  In  the  Anglo-Saxon  relics  the  first  root  consonant  is  saved 
by  metathesis  with  the  root  vowel.  These  contractions  at  first  gave 
rise  to  several  different  vowels  and  diphthongs  found  in  O.  H.  German. 
Conformation  in  analogy  with  ablaut  has  brought  them  to  a  uniform  eo 
or  e  in  Ang. -Saxon.     ^  52.     O.  Fries,  presents  a,  e,  e,  a,6,e;  perf.  i,  e. 

160.    Composition. — Derivatives  form  the  imperfect  by  suffixing  to 
the  verb  stem  de<^dide,  imperfect  of  dun,  do  :  hifo-de ^=did  love. 

(a.)  This  formation  is  common  to,  and  peculiar  to,  the  Teutonic 
tongues.  Two  suffixes  of  derivation  appear  in  Anglo-Saxon  verb  stems : 
-^a>^e>^>e> —  (Latin  4,  Conj.  IV.),  and  -o>(a,  w)>e  (Lat- 
in -d,  Conj.  I.),  both  from  an  original  -aja,  Sanskrit  Class  Tenth,  Greek 
pure  verbs. 

Gothic,  rja.y'an,  save  ;  nasi-da,  p\ur.  nasi-dcdum:  salb67i,  sd^lvc  ;  salho-da, 

salho-dcdmn. 
O.  Sax..  ne);;an,  save  ;  ncri-da,  ncri-dun :  scawo-n,  see  ;  scaivo-da,  scawo- 

dun. 
A.-Sax.  Tierian,  save ;  7icre-dc,ncrc-don;  seal/ian,  salve;  sealf6-dc,-don. 
O.  Fries,  nera,  save ;  ner{e)-de,  ner(e)-don ;  salvja,  salve  ;  salva-de,  -don. 
O.Norse  tclja,  tell ;  tal-da,  tol-dum :  kalla,  call ;  kalla-da,  kollu-dum. 
O.II.  G.  7icr;an,  save  ;  nein-ta,  neri-tumcs :    salpon,  salve;  sa/p6-ta,  salpo- 

tumcs. 

Gothic  and  O.  II.  German  have  also  a  stem  in  -Cii^  -e,  corresponding 
to  tlie  Latin  Seconl  Conjugation. 

F 


82         TENSE  STEMS.— PEKSONAL  ENDINGS. 

(A.)  Derivatives  in  Sanskrit  have  only  a  periphrastic  perfect,  one 
form  of  which  lias  kar  (do)  as  its  auxiliary  enclitic  ;  the  Greek  passive 
first  aorist  is  compounded  with  0£  =  dc  {\  108)  ;  the  Latin  first,  second, 
and  fourth  conjugations  compound  with  fni  (be)>-?-/,  -rii :  amd-vi, 
doc(c)ui,  audl-vi. 

IGl.  Tense  Stems.  —  The  present  stem  suffixes  a  or  ia  to  the  root. 
The  imperfect  is  from  the  old  perfect,  which  repeated  (reduplicated)  the 
root.  The  Parent  Speech  had  also  an  aorist  stem  prefixing  to  the  root  a 
demonstrative  radicle  called  the  augment,  and  an  imperfect  prefixing  a  sim- 
ilar augment  to  the  present  stem.  Other  tense  stems  were  formed  by  com- 
position, as  -d  future  with  as  (to  be)  or  hhu  (to  be). 

1G2.  Mode  Suffixes. — The  indicative  and  imperative  suffix  the  per- 
sonal endings  to  the  tense  stem ;  the  subjunctive  prolonged  the  stem  to  ex- 
press doubt  or  hesitation  by  suffixing  to  it  a  for  present  contingency,  ia  or  i 
for  past  contingency  or  desire  (the  optative  mode).  The  Teutonic  subjunc- 
tives are  from  the  optative. 

163,  Personal  Endings  are  from  the  same  radicles  as  the  personal 
pronouns.     ^  130. 


Singular. 

Plural. 

1st  Person. 

2d  Person. 

Od  Person. 

1st  Person. 

2d  Person. 

od  Person. 

ma, 

tva  >ta, 

ta. 

ma+ta, 

ta+ta, 

an+ta, 

me. 

thou. 

///(.s,  lie 

I+thou. 

ihoti  +  thou. 

he+he. 

The  Sanskrit,  Greek,  and  Gothic  have  a  dual.     ^^  61,2;   165,  c. 

The  usual  phonetic  decay  has  been  modified  by  two  main  causes :  (1)  dif- 
ferent weight  of  the  tense  stems,  (2)  different  mode  suffixes.  It  will  be  dis- 
cussed in  connection  with  the  paradigm  of  a  strong  verb. 


1G4.   First   Conjugation. 

Active  Voice, 
niman,  to  take. 

Pres.  Infinitive.  Imperfect  Sing.,       Plur.  Passive  Participle, 

niman ;  nam,  namon ;  numen. 

Indicative  Mode. 
Present  (and  Future)  Tense. 
Singular. 
ic  nime,  I  take. 
J)ti  nimes^,  thott  takest. 
he  nimcf/,  Jie  taketh. 


Plural. 
pe  mvaad,  we  take. 
ge  niraarf,  ye  take. 
Ill  mmad,  they  take. 


PERSONAL  ENDINGS.— PRESENT  TENSE. 


83 


165.  Present  tense, -y/ nam;  tense  stem,  nama.  Sanskrit  not  yet  iden- 
tified with  the  others,  though  put  with  them  by  Pott,  Benfey,  Diefenbach ; 
Latin  -emo  in  ad-imo,  etc.,  also  put  here  by  Bopp,  Diefenbach. 

SlNGULAK. — 


Parent  Speech. 

Sanskrit. 

Greek. 

Latin. 

Gothic. 

O.  Saxon. 

0.  Norse. 

].  nama-mi 

nama-mi 

vifi(>)(^-^i) 

emo- 

nima- 

nimu- 

nem- 

2.  nama-si 

nama-si     ■ 

I 

emi-s 

nimi-s 

nimi-s 

nem-r 

3.  nama-ti 

Diima-ti 

1  ve^is-riy 

} 

emi-t 

mmi-p 

nimi-J 

nem-)' 

Plural. — 

1.  nama-masi 

nama-nias 

Vl/J.O-flll' 

emi-mus 

nima-?« 

nima-rf 

nemu-7« 

2.  nama-tasi 

naina-tha 

Vijlt-TE 

emi-tis 

nimi-y^ 

nima-d 

nemi-rf 

3.  nama-nti 

nama-nti  ■ 

•Vifio-vn  > 

]] 

i  emo-nti  >  1 

-  nima-nd 

nima-(i 

nema 

(.  vtfio-vcfi    •"■emunt      j 
O.  H.  Ger.  nim-u,  -is,  -it ;  plur.  nem-ames,  -at,  -ant.    O.  Fries,  like  A. -Sax. 
A. -Sax.  plur.  may  be  -un,  -um,  ^  212  ;  before  a  subjt.,  -e,  and  see  ^  170,  c. 

(a.) — 1.  -ina>-mi>-m> —  is  gravitation,  ^38:  -m  is  found  only 
in  eom,  earn,  am  ;  beom,  be  ;  Northumbrian  geseom,  I  see  ;  gedoam^ 
gedom,  I  do;  also  {m^n)  cuedon,  I  quoth,  etc.  2.  -tva>-ta!>-^2  > 
-si  (hngual  softening,  ^  41,  b)  ^-s^-st  (lingual  strengthening,  ^  49)  : 
-s  is  found  especially  in  Northumbrian  before  du:  spreces  du,  speak- 
est  thou.  3.  -ta>-^i>-^  (gravitation,  ^  38)  >-<?  (shifting,  ^  41,  a). 
Northumbrian  -s<^-d,  §  31,2;  41, i;  same  in  plural;  so  in  O.  Norse 
-r/>-5>-r.  Plural. — 1.  -mata>-ma5i  (as  in  2dsing.)>-m  (grav- 
itation, §  38)  >  -d  (conformation  with  2d  and  3d  person,  ^  40,  1).  2. 
-tata>-'a5i  (as  in  2d  sing.)>-<  (gravitation,  ^  38)  >-rf  (shifting,  ^  41, 
a).     3.  -ailta>-72<«> -f?  (gravitation,  ^  38,  and  shifting,  §  41,  a). 

(J.)  Stem  ending  a>e  or  /,  rare  o,  u,  -,  ^  38.  -y/ nam'^ nim  (ablaut, 
§  158).  The  common  a-umlaut  of  nirn^nem  in  the  O.  Saxon  plural  is 
stopped  by  m.     Labial  assimilation  i^eo'^y  is  found,  ^  35,  2,  a;  23. 

(c.)  The  Sanskrit  has  dual  forms,  -vas,  -thas,  -tas ;  Greek,  — ,  -tov, 
-Tov;  Gothic,  -vas'^-os,  -ts,  — ,  ^  130. 

(d.)  Weak  verbs  suffix  the  same  endings  to  the  stem  ia  or  6,  ^  160 : 

Gothic.  na.s-ja,-Jis,-jip;  -jam, -jip, -jand :  sa.\h-d, -6s, -oJj ;  6m, -dp, -6nd. 

^-,  .  .,       .,.,.,      fscaw-on, -05, -0^;  1,2, 3. -o^  or 

O.  Sax.  ner-ju,  -IS,  -id;  -jad,  -jad,  -jad:    \       ,.    , 

A.-Sax.  ner-ie, -est, -ed;  -iad,  -iad,  -iad:  csea.](-ie,(-ige'),-dst,-ad;  1,2,3. 
O.  Fries.  nev-e,-{i')st,-{i)lh;  -ath,-alh,-ath:  \     -iad  or  -ig(e)ad. 
O.  Nor.  tel,  — ,  -r,  -r;  -jum,  -id,  -ja:  kall-a,  -ar,  -ar]  -um,  -id,  -a. 

O.II.G.  ner-ju, -is, -it;  -james, -jat, -jant :  S3i\p-um,-6s,-6l;  -6mcs,-6t,-6nt. 

Anglo-Saxon  has  ia^ie'^e'^ —  in  the  singular,  z'a>a  in  the  plural: 
o  has  been  driven  out  by  ia  (conformation,  ^  40;  compare  O.Saxon)  ex- 
cept in  singular  second  and  third  o^d'^a,  ^  38.  The  i  in  ie  and  ia 
often  has  dissimilated  gemination  to  ig,  ige.    ^  85,  a.    See  ^^  183-180. 


84 


STKONG  VERBS.— INDICATIVE. 


Singular. 
ic  nam,  I  took. 
J)tl  name,  thou  tooJccst. 
ho  nam,  he  took. 


ic  sceal  (pille)  niman. 
J)<i  scealZ  (pil^)  nima?i. 
he  sceal  (pille)  n'lman. 


Transitive  Form. 
Sing.  -^  ^az^e  taken. 

ic  hseblbe  numew. 

J)ti  hcef^i  (haf(^s^)  nnmen. 

he  hoeft^  (haffM)  nume^i. 
Flur. 

pe  habba^  numew. 

ge  habbac?  numen. 

hi  habbaf?  numew. 


Sing.  ^  ^^^  taken. 

ic  haeff?e  numew. 

J)ti  hsef(7esi  nume??, 

he  hoeft/e  nume^i. 
Pluk. 

p6  hsefJo^i  numc?2. 

ge  hreff?o;i  nume?z. 

hi  hoef(7o?i  numew. 


Iinjjcrfcct. 

Plural. 
pe  uamon,  «^e  ^ooA:. 
ge  numon,  ye  took. 
hi  namo?2,  they  took. 

Future. 
shall  or  will  take. 

pe  sculoji  (pillaf/)  mvaan. 
ge  sculo^i  (pill«f/)  nimaw. 
hi  sculoji  (pillaf/)  mina?». 

Perfect. 

Intransitive  Form. 
/  have  {am)  come. 
ic  eom  cume^i. 
])ti  ear^  cume«. 
he  is  cumew. 

pe  S2W(?  (sindon)  cxamene. 
ge  Bind  (sindon)  cumewe. 
hi  s^?^c?  (sindon)  cwmene. 


Pluper'fect. 


/  had  (was")  come. 


ic  pscs  curae?^. 
J)ti  p^re  cume^z. 
he  poes  cumew. 

pe  pjero^i  cumewe. 
ge  'psivon  cTiraewe. 
hi  p&ro?i  cume/ie. 


Other  Forms  :  nam,nom;  ndmo7i,-an  (d'^o);  sceal,  seel ;  scul-on, -un, 
-an;  sceol-on,  -im,  -an;  pillc,  pile,  pilt  {i'^y);  haihhe,  hebbe,  habbe, 
haf-a, -u, -o ;  hafest;  hvefed;  hvuhbad;  eom,  earn ;  is,  ys ;  sind,  sint, 
sindan  {i^y,  ie,  eo),  ear-on,  -un.  For  eo7n  may  be  used  peorde  or 
beam;  {or  pxs, peard  (^  178). 


IMPERFECT  INFLECTION,  STRONG  AND  WEAK. 


85 


166.  Pekfect  Stem  na-nam,  Latin  theme  em-im^em. 
Singular. — 

Parent  Speech.         Sanskrit.  Greek.  Latin.  Gothic     O.  Saxon.    O.  Norse. 

1.  na-nam-(m)a  na-nam-a  ve-vifi-T]ica         em-i  nam         nam         nam 

^na-nan-tha,      "j 
>  > 


2.  na-nam-ta      )  na-nim-i-tha>  '  vt-vi/i-ijKac;       em-(is)ti       naxa-t 


(^nem-i-tha 
3.  na-nam-(t)a  na-na'm-a 
Plural. — 

1.  na-nam-masi  nem-i-ma 

2.  na-nam-tasi     nem-a 

3.  na-nam-anti     nem-us 


nam-i      nam-! 


ve-vefi-7]KE  em-it 

VE-vtn-{]Kafj.ev  em-imus 

vt-vtfi-i]KaTi  em-(is)tis 
vE-vE{i-i]icd(n 


nem-vm   nam-are   nma-um 
nem-up    nam-wre   nam-ud 
em-(er)unt  nem-ww    nam-ura    nam-u 

O.  Fries,  endings  are 


O.  H.  Ger.  nam,  nam-i,  nam ;  ndm-umes,  -ut,  -un. 
like  Ang.-Saxon,  nam^nom. 

A.-Sax.  PLURALS  have  sometimes  -urn  (§  196),  often  -un,  and  see  ^  170,  c. 
(a.)  The  reduplication  sets  at  work  compensation  (^  37,  4),  and  all 
the  singular  endings  are  lost  except  in  the  second  person  a  vanishing 
-e  <^  -i.  O.  Sax.  and  O.  H.  Ger.  have  -i  <[  Sanskrit  -i-tha,  and  a  stem 
like  the  plural.  Gothic  and  O.  Norse  have  -t<^-tha  and  the  singular 
unchanged  stem ;  -t  is  found  in  some  Anglo-Saxon  preteritive  verbs : 
scealt,  etc.,  ^  1G7.  Weak  verbs  in  Gothic  have  -s <^-ih  <^-t,  like  the 
present,  and  it  is  found  in  Anglo-Saxon,  oftenest  in  the  new  imperfect 
of  preteritive  verbs:  cunnan, imp.  cudes ;  so  ZcS^/e^,  observedst ;  hrohtes, 
broughtest;  5eaZ<fe5,  gavest,  etc.  (^  168);  and  in  Northumbrian;  weak 
verbs  generally  strengthen  the  -s  >  -st  like  the  present. 

Plural. — m^n  is  shifting  (41,  Z») ;  the  second  person  conforms  with 
the  first  and  third.  Sanskrit  -i-,  Gothic  -u-,  connecting  vowel,  inserted 
for  euphony  ;  -u-  >  -o-,  precession,  ^  38. 

167.  Future. — Sceal  is  a  preterito-present,  ^  212;  pillc  is  irregular  in 
the  singular  after  the  same  analogy,  ^  40 ;  niman  is  the  infinitive.  For  the 
history  and  use  of  these  periphrastic  forms,  see  Syntax. 

168.  Perfect  and  Pluperfect. — Hxhhe,  imperf.  haifde,  is  a  weak 
verb,  ^  183;  com,  imperf.  pees,  is  irregular,  ^  213;  numen  is  the  past  parti- 
ciple.    For  history  and  use,  see  Syntax. 

Weak  Imperfect  lixfde<i'\/haf-ia-\-dc  (^  160). 


Gothic. 

0.  II. 

Gorman. 

O.  Saxon. 

Ang.-Sax. 

0.  Norse. 

Infinitive. 

nasjan, 

tuon, 

nerjan, 

nerjan, 

don, 

telja. 

did. 

saved. 

did. 

saved. 

saved. 

did. 

told. 

SiXG. —  (lida 

nasi-da 

teta 

neri-ta 

neri-da 

dido 

tal-da 

didts 

nasi-dC'S 

t:\ti 

neri-tos 

neri-dos 

dides< 

tal-dir 

dida 

nasi-da 

tfcta 

neri-ta 

neri-da 

dide 

tal-di 

Plcr. — dedum 

nasi-dcdum 

tatume.' 

>■    neri-tumes 

neri-dure 

did  OK 

tol-du»» 

dcdu/< 

nasi-dedu/> 

tatui 

neri-tu< 

neri-dure 

didora 

tcil-du^ 

dcdure 

nasi-dedun. 

tatun. 

neri-ture 

nerl-dujt 

didon 

tol-du 

86 


STRONG  VERB— SUBJUNCTIVE. 


1G9.   Subjunctive  Mode. 
Present  Tense. 


Singular. 
ic  nime,  (if)  I  take. 
J)<1  nime,  (if)  thou  taJce. 
he  nime,  (if)  he  take. 


ic  nume,  {if)  I  took. 
J)<i  name,  {if)  tJiou  took. 
he  name,  {if)  he  took. 


Plural 
pe  niraew,  {if)  we  take. 
ge  nimew,  {if)  ye  take. 
hi  nime^i,  {if)  they  take. 

Imperfect. 

pe  name?i,  {if)  we  took. 
ge  narae«,  (^y)  ye  ^ooA;. 
hi  naraen,  {if)  they  took. 


Future. 
(7/*)  /  shall  (will)  take. 


ic  scyle  (pille)  nimaw. 
J)A  scyle  (pille)  niman. 
he  scyle  (pille)  nimaw. 

Transitive  Form. 
Sing.        (-(/")  -^  ^^^'^  taken. 

ic  hsebbe  nuraew. 

J)tl  hsebbe  nume??. 

he  hsebbe  nume^i. 
Plur. 

pe  haebbe?i  numew. 

ge  hsebbew  nnmeti. 

hi  hsebbe^i  numen. 


Sing.       (^f)  ^  ^'^^  taken. 

ic  haBff^e  numa*. 

J)11  hjefcZe  nume??. 

he  hsefc?e  nume^i. 
Plur. 

pe  haefc?e?i  numcw. 

ge  h3ef<f?e?ir  numen. 

hi  hxfden  numew. 


pe  scyle?^  (pillew)  nimaw. 
go  scylew  (pille?^)  nima7i. 
hi  scylen  (pillew)  mman. 

Perfect 

Intransitive  Form. 
(If)  I  have  (be)  come. 
ic  st  cumen. 
\)^  si  cume?«. 
he  Si  cnmen. 

pe  sin  cumewe. 
ge  sin  cume^ie. 
hi  sm  cume^ie. 

Pluper'fect. 

(If)  I  had  (ivere)  come. 
ic  pajre  cumew. 
J»ti  p&re  cume?2. 
he  p^re  cumew. 

pe  -psbren  cumewe. 
ge  -p&ren  cumewe. 
hi  -psbren  cumewe. 


Other  Forms  :  scyle,  scyl-en,  -on,  -an,  -e  (y'^i,  u,  eo);  hxbben,  habban, 
habbon;  si,  sin  (t^y,  ie,  eo,  ig)  ;  p&r-en,  -an,  -on  (<»^e).  For  si  may 
be  bed,  pese,  peorde ;  for  psere,  purde.     §  1 79. 


SUBJUNCTIVE. 


Greek. 

Latin. 

Gothic. 

O.  Sax. 

0.  Norae. 

vkfiOl-jll 

eme-ni 

nimau 

nime 

nemi 

v'(fJ.Ol-Q 

eme-s 

iiimui-s 

nime-s 

nemi-7" 

VifXOl- 

emu-t 

nimui- 

nime 

nemi 

injioi-jxiv 

emc-mus 

nimai-TOct 

nime-7t 

nemi-)78 

7'ifjoi-re 

eme-tis 

nimai-/i 

nime-ra 

nemi-rf 

vi/xoie-v 

eme-nt 

nimai-na 

nimc-ra 

nemi 

[§  1G8. — Continued  from  page  85. J 
Sanskrit  da-dhd-mi  <^^ dhd,  Greek  ri-Orj-fu,  does  not  occur  as  an  inde- 
pendent verb  in  Gothic,  and  the  form  is  supplied  by  comparison.  The 
reduplication  has  given  rise  to  a  secondary  stem,  Sanskrit  dadh,  Gothic 
dad,  O.  H.  Ger.  tat,  from  which  the  plural  and  second  singular  are  form- 
ed with  the  ablaut  of  the  first  conjugation.  For  second  singular  -s,  see 
§  166.     In  haf-ia-de'^ lurfde,  ia  drops  and  -y/a  shifts  (^  41). 

170.  SuBju^'CTiYE  Presext  <  Optative  Stem  nama-i  (§  162). 

Parent  Sp.  Sanskrit. 

Sing. —  1.  namai-m  namej-am 

2.  namai-s  namu-s 

3.  namai-t  name-t 
Pldr. — 1.  namai-mas  namu-ma 

2.  namai-tas      name-ta 

3.  namai-nt       namej-us 

O.  H.  Ger.  nejne,  neme-s,  neme  ;  neme-mcs,  -t,  -n.   0.  Fries,  imne  throughout. 
The  Latin  serves  as  a  future  ;  emtm  is  archaic.     O.  Sax.  has  a=:e:  nimun. 
The  PLURAL  in  Anglo-Saxon  ends  often  in  -an >  -an,  -on ^  -en >  -e, 
^^  18,  38.     Before  a  subject  pronoun  -e  is  used. 

(a.)  The  long  stem  ending  has  worked  like  the  long  vowels  of  femi- 
nine nouns  (^  64,  2)  ;  the  singular  is  weathered  of  the  personal  endings. 
Plural  m^n  is  shifting  (^  41,  b),  and  the  second  person  conforms  with 
the  first  and  third  (^  40,  1). 

(3.)  The  accent  in  the  Sanskrit  is  the  same  as  in  the  present  indica- 
tive ;  and  hence  the  root  vowel  is  the  same ;  but  the  stem  ending  works 
a-umlaut  whenever  there  is  umlaut  in  the  plural  indicative ;  m  stops  it 
in  Saxon  niman. 

(c.)  The  plural  subjunctive  endings  (especially  -an)  are  sometimes 
found  in  the  indicative  of  auxiliaries,  of  praeteritive  presents,  and  of  im- 
perfects, most  of  which  have  a  subjunctive  force,     ^i^  151,40. 

171.  The  Subjunctive  Impeefect  (Optative  Perfect)  Stem 
')ianam-\-jily  oiemjd  (§  166). 

Sanskrit.  Greek.  Gothic.  O.  Saxon.  O.  Norse. 

SiN'G. —  1.  nemja'-ni  vi-vs[x(7jKo)a]-v  nemjau         nami  niumi 

2.  nemja'-s  vt-vefi{r]Ko)i7]-(;  nemjei-s       numi-s  ntemi-r 

3.  nemja'-t  vi-viiiQ]Ko)it]  nemi             nami  nijumi 
Plur. — 1.  nemja-ma  vi-viii(r}K6)ii)-iiiv  nemei-7na  nami-rt  nicmi-7?i 

2.  nemja'-ta       vi-vt)i(riK6)ir]-Te        nemei-/>       nami-7i     nafcmi-f/ 

3.  nemjus  in-vin(iiKo)ir]-(jav     nemei-na     nami-7i     nibnii 


O.  II.  Ger. 

nami 

nami-s 

nami 

naiai-mes 

numi-i 

nami-7j 


j'f-i'f/(();ico)i'?j-(7aj'  nemei-n(z 
The  Sanskrit  is  an  uncommon  form  from  the  Vedas.  The  accent  on  the 
ending  leaves  the  root  to  the  same  changes  as  in  the  plural  of  the  im- 
perfect indicative.  Anglo  Saxon  stem  i>e  is  precession  ;  the  personal 
endings  as  in  the  present  subjunctive.  Conformation  with  the  present 
brings  in  the  ending  -an,  -on ;  for  -c,  ^  170.    O.  Fries,  nume,  throughout. 


88  IMPERATIVE.— NOUN  FORMS. 

172.  liirEEATivE  Mode. 

SiXG.  I  Pluk. 

2.  nira,  talce.  I   niraat?',  take. 


173.  Infixitiye. 
nima»,  to  take. 

PkESEXT  PAKTICirLE. 

iiimenc?e,  taking. 


Gerund. 
to  niin«??we,  to  take. 

Past  Participle. 
numc?i,  taken. 


174.  Imperative  Stem  nama. 

Sanskrit.        Greek.  Gothic.      O.  Saxon.     O.  Korac.     O.  II.  G. 

giNG.  —  nama  v'nif.,        Latin  cine  nim  niin  nem  nim 

Plur. — nama-ta      vs/xt-rt,  Za<m  emi-te      iiimi-//      nima-cZ     nemi-rf     nema-i 

Plural -tata>^a>i  (^  38)  >r?  (sliifting,  ^1- «)•     O.F.=A.  Sax. 

175.  Noux  Forms. 

1.  Infinitive  nam.-\-ana;    3.  Gerund.  nam-{-ana-\-Ja. 

^    .         Cndm-anaj-a)  (veu-ttvC-evai)    . 
l.Detci'e...\  ..     M    ^V         n  >nim-G?i  nim-aK         ncm-a  nem-an 

I  (§  79,  a)     U  (§  70,  a)         ) 

2.  (§  120),    ndm-anija,  Latin  em-endo,  O.Saxon  iiim-annia>-anna.  ncm-enne 

3.  Pr.Part.   nama-nt        \    "  .  >  nima-ncf(a)-s  mma-nd       nema-nd-l  nema-ni-i 

I  ia(.  eme-nt-is ) 

■LP.  Part,  (bhusr-ni      )  (rtK-vo-v  (born))  .         (ga-nom- 

J        °  [•  J  >  numa-w-s         numa-w        numi-?j?j   -;         ^ 

{Strong.)  I  (bent')         )  I  do-nu-m(o^'/n)  i   an-er 

').  P.  Part.  (      ,    -  ,,         ivtji-r)-T6-c       )       •  i  ^  -,         ^  •  \      •  i  4.  t  i 

,„,    ,  ^  ^na(m)-ta        \        ..,  \nixs\-h((i)s       (gi-)neri-cZ  tal-d-r         ga-nen-< 

(Weak.)  \  i  em(p)-tu-s      )         ^  ^ 

(a.)  The  dative  case  ending  is  gone  in  Teutonic  infinitives.     ^  38. 

(b.)  Gerund  -enne^-ende  (^  445,  2,  mi^nd,  ^  27,  5),  so  in  O.  N. ;  M. 
11.  Ger. ;  Friesic,  0.  Sax.,  and  O.  H.  Ger.  have  a  genitive  nim-annias, 
-an-nas  {-es) ;  nem-ennes ;  and  M.  H.  German  has  gen.  nem-endes. 

(c.)  To  these  stems  of  the  participles  are  added  suffixes  contained  in 
the  case  endings.     §^  104-106. 

(f/.)  The  Greek  verbals  in  -t6q  are  not  counted  participles  (Hadley, 
2Gl,c).  Only  weak  verbs  have  -da,  -da,  in  Teutonic.  Few  verbs  have 
the  participle  in  -na  in  Sanskrit ;  only  relics  are  found  in  Greek  and  Latin, 
but  all  the  strong  verbs  use  it  in  Teutonic. 

(e.)  Weak  stems  in  -ia  and  -o  have  i,  c,  ig  or  igc,  before  -an,  -annc, 
-end.     ^  165,  d. 

17G.  Periphrastic  Coitoitioxal  Forms. 

Potential  Mode. 

^lodal  verbs  magan,  cunnan,  motan,  diirran,  pillan,  sculan,  pltan'^utan, 
may,        can,       must,      dare,       will,      shall,         let  us. 


PERIPHRASTIC  CONDITIONAL  FORMS. 

Present  Tense. 


89 


Sing.         Indicative  Forms. 
mxg,  can,  mot,  dear 
meaht,  canst,  most,  dearst 
mxg,  can,  mot,  dear 

Plue. 
mdgon,  cunnon,  moton,  dur- 
ron 


Subjunctive  Forms. 
m&ge,  cunne,  mote,  durre    - 
m&ge,  cunne,  mote,  durre 
meege,  cunne,  mote,  durre  ;j 

mxgen,  cunncn,  muten,  dur- 
ren,  utan 


c^Q  Imperfect  Tense,  Indicative  Forms. 

meahte,  cude,  m.6ste,  dorste, polde,  sc(e)olde 
meahtest,  cudest,  mbstest,  dorstest,  poldest,  sc(e)oldest 
meahte,  cude,  moste,  dorste,  polde,  sc(_c}olde 
Plur. 
meahton,  ciuton,  moston,  dorston,  poldon,  sc{e)oldon 

Imperfect  Tense,  Subjunctive  Forms. 

Sing,  meahte,  cude,  inoste,  dorste,  polde,  sc(_e)olde 
Plur.  meahten,  cuden,  mbsten,  dorsten,  polden,  sc(e)olden 

Gerundial   Form. 
I  am  to  take  =  I  must  or  ought  to  take  or  be  taken. 
Plur. 


SlSG. 

ic  com 

})u  eart  )■  to  nimanne. 

he  is 


pe  sind 

ge  sind  ^  to  nimanne. 

hi  sind 


177.  Othee  Periphrastic  Forms. 

1.  com  (am)  +  present  participle. 

Present eom,  eart,  is;  smd  nimende. 

Imperfect pxs,  p&re,  pxs ;  pxron  nimende. 

Future bebm,  hist,  hid;  h cod  nimende. 

sceal  pesan  nimende. 
Infinitive  Future...  bebn  nimende. 

2.  don  (do)  +infinitive,  §  406,  a. 


Other  Forms  :  meaht,  meahte,  etc.  (ea'^i) ;  mdg-on,  -urn,  -un,  -an  ((z>a'); 
meahte  s ;  meaht-on,  -urn,  -an,  -en,  -e  ((^^  166,170);  can,  con;  const; 
cunn-on,  -un,  -an ;  cudes ;  cud-on,  -an,  -en ;  mbt-on,  -um,  -un,  -an,  -en ; 
mot-en, -an, -e ;  mbst-es ;  mbst-um, -on, -an ;  durre  (u^ y)  ;  durr-on, 
-an;  dorst-on,  -en;  poldes ;  pold-on,  -um,  -un,  -an,  -e;  sc(e)oldcs; 
sc(e)old-on,  -un,  -an,  -en,  -e.  Forms  of  com,  peorde,  and  bcom  inter- 
change (^  178). 


90 


CONJUGATION  OF  THE  PASSIVE  VOICE. 


17  8.  Passive  V  o  i  c  e. 

Indicative  Mode, 

Singular.  Plural. 

Present  and  Perfect,  I  am  taken  or  have  been  taken. 


ic  eom*  (peordf)  numew, 
Jjti  eari5  (peorttes^)  nume??. 
he  is  (peovdef?)  nuraew. 


pe  &ind{on)  (peordarf)  nwmene. 
ge  si?id{o7i)  (peordarf)  numene. 
hi  mnd{on)  (peovdac/)  numewe. 


Past  and  Pluperfect,  I  loas  taken  or  had  been  taken. 


ic  pais  (peard)  iiume«. 
Jul  pare  (purdg)  numen. 
he  pffis  (peard)  nurnew. 


pc  pajro^i  (purdon)  numene. 
ge  prerow  (purdo??)  numene. 
hi  pjero^i  (purdon)  numene. 


ic  be6(m)*  numen. 
\)^  hist  numen. 
he  Vut  numen. 


Future. 
1.  I  shall  be  taken. 

pe  beot^  numene. 
ge  be6<^  numene. 
Ill  beo^f  numene. 

2.  /  shall  or  loill  be  taken. 


ic  sceal  (pille)  beun  numen. 
1)11  sceaU  (pil^)  beon  numen, 
lie  sceal  (pille)  beun  numen. 


pe  sculon  (pilla<f )  beon  numene. 
ge  sculon  (pillac^)  beon  numene. 
hi  sculon  {\)\\\ad)  beon  numene. 


Perfect,  /  have  been  taken. 


jc  eom  gcpordcn  numen. 
pu  cart  geporden  numen. 
he  IS  geporden  numen. 


pe  sind{on)  gepordene  numene. 
ge  sind{on)  gepordene  numene. 
hi  sind{on)  gepordene  numene. 


Pluperfect,  /  had  been  taken. 
7C  pxs  geporden  numen.  pe  pwron  gepordene  numene. 

pu  paire  geporden  numen.  ge  pwron  gepordene  numene. 

he  pxs  geporden  numen.  |  hi  p&ron  gepordene  numene. 


Sing. 
ic  (1)A,  he)  bed  numen 


17 9.  Subjunctive  Mode. 
Present. 
(//)  /  be  taken. 
Plur. 


p6  (ge,  hi)  beon  numene. 


*  The  forms  o{ peorde,  eom,  and  beam  interchange. 


PERIPHRASTIC  CONDITIONAL  FORMS. 


91 


Sing. 
ic  (J)ti,  he)  -p&ve  numm. 


Past. 

(If)  I  were  taken. 
I  Pltjk. 
I   pe  (ge,  hi)  parepi  mimetic. 


180.  Impekative  Mode. 


Sing.  Be  thou  taken: 

pes  ]3il  nnmen. 

181.  Infinitive. 
heon  numen,  to  be  taken. 


Plcr.  -Be  ye  taken, 

'pesad  ge  n\ime?ie. 

Participle. 
numew,  taken. 


182.  Peeiphkastic  Conditional  (§  176). 

Potential  Mode. 

Present  Tense. 


Sing.         Indicative  Forms. 

mxg  (&c.) 

meaht  (&c.) 

nj»^  (&c.) 
Plue. 

mdgon  (&c.) 


icon  7iM77ien(e). 


Subjunctive  Forms. 
m&ge  (&c.) 
m&ge  (&c.) 
OT^o-e  (&c.)    )>  ieore  nwwzen(e). 


m&gen  (&c.) 


Imperfect. 


Sing. 
meahte  (&c.) 
meahtest  (&c.) 
meahte  (&c.) 

Plue. 
meahton  (&c.) 


ieora  numen{e). 


meahte  (&c.) 
meahte  (&c.) 
meahte  (&c.) 

meahten  (&c.) 


ieo«  numen{e). 


For  icon  (infinitive)  is  found  /^esan  or  peordan.  The  forms  interchange  of 
Aeo,  5J,  /'ese,  peorde ;  of  /^ctTC,  purde  ;  of  /'es,  5co,  peord.  Bist,  bid  (i >?/) ; 
ieo,  ieo£^  (e6<Ci<>).  .^Ifric's  grammar  has  indie,  prcs.  com,  imperf. /«'5, 
fut.  Jeo,  perf.  /j^j  fulfremedlice  (completely),  plupcrf.  pscs  gefyrn  (for- 
merly) ;  subjunctive  for  a  wish,  pres.  bed  gyt  (yet),  imperf.  pu^re,  pluperf. 
piire  fulfremedlice  ;  for  a  condition,  pres.  eo7n  nu  (now),  imperf. /Ja?j,  fut. 
bed  gyt  (yet) ;  imperative  si ;  infinitive  bcun. 


92 


CONJUGATION  OF  WEAK  VERBS. 


18  3.   WEAK  VERBS.— (Conjugation  VI.) 
Active  Voice. 


Pres.  Infinitive. 
neria>i,  savej 
hyran,  hear/ 
luHaw,  love; 


Impekf.  Indicative. 
nerede; 
hjrde  / 
lufoc?e/ 


Passive  Participle. 
nered. 
hyved. 
{(/e-)\nfod. 


Indicative  Mode. 

Present  (and  Future)  Tense  (§  165,  d). 

I  save,  hear,  love. 


Singular. 
ic  nevie,  hjre,  lufige. 
J)1l  nevest,  hjrest,  \nfdst. 
he  nera/,  hyrcd,  lufdct. 


Plural. 
pe  neviad,  hyrad,  \nfiad. 
go  neriad,  hyrc(d,  lufiad. 
hi  neviad,  hyrad,  hifiad. 


Imperfect  (§§  160, 166, 168). 
I  saved,  heard,  loved. 


ic  nerede,  hyrde,  lufode. 

}3tl  neredest,  hyrdest,  lu^odest. 

he  nevede,  hyrde,  Infode. 


pe  neredo7i,  hyvdon,  l\xfodo)i. 
gd  ner edon,  hyrdon,  Inf odo7i. 
hi  neredon,  hyrdon,  lnfodo)i. 


ic  sceal  (pille)   ,        .       ,  ^ 

l.lisceal«(piI0fTT'    •^''''''' 
he  sceal  (pule) 


Future  (§167). 
I  shall  (will)  save,  hear,  love. 

pc  sculow  (pillar^)  ^  neriaUy 
ge  scnlon  (piWoft)  V  hyran^ 
hi  scrdon  (pillat/)  )  lufian. 


Perfect 

(§  168). 

Transitive. 

Intransitive. 

/  have  saved,  heard,  loved. 
Sing. 

/  have  {am)  relumed. 

ic  hsebbe              )          ,  ,  a      -, 

l>liha.f.U^afa54T.'7^      ' 
he  hiEfc/,  hafdd  )     ^"^''^^- 

ic  eo7n  j 

])A  eart  >  gecjrred. 

he  is      ) 

Plur. 

pc  habbac?  ^ 

ge  habbac^  ■  nerec?,  hyre^Z,  \ufod. 

hi  hahhad  ) 

pu  sind  (sindon)  j 

ge  sind  (sindon)  >-  gecyrrec^e. 

hi  sind  (sindon) 

la,  iga,  igea,  ga  interchange,  and  ie,  ige,  ge :  o^(a,  ?<)^plur.  e.     For  va- 
riations of  auxiliaries  and  endings,  see  corresponding  tenses  of  strong  verbs. 


CONJUGATION  OF  WEAK  VERBS. 
Pluper'fect  (§168). 


93 


Transitive. 

/  had  saved,  heard,  loved. 
Sing. 

ic  hseft?e      \ 

J)ti  hse:Mest  >  nerec?,  hjved.,  lufoc?. 

he  hv&Me    ) 

Plur. 

p6  haef<?o?i  \ 

gS  hvs,Mo7i  >  nerec?,  \\jved,  lufoc?. 

Li  hsiidon  ) 


Intransitive. 
I  had  (loas)  returned. 

ic  pees     \ 

]3<i  pare  >•  gecyrra?. 

be  poes    ) 

pe  p£ero;i  ^ 

ge  p^ro^i  >■  gecyrrec7e. 

bi  p^ro?i  ) 


184.  SuBjuxcTivE  Mode. 

Present  (§  170). 

(//")  /  save,  hear,  love. 


Singular. 


IC 


]5tl  V  nerze,  hyre,  Ixxiige. 
be  ) 


Plural. 
pc 

ge  \  nerie^i,  hfre?!,  Infiffen. 
bi 


Imperfect  (§  171). 
(If)  I  saved,  heard,  loved. 


10 


J)<i  >■  neredie,  hyrtZle,  lufocZie. 
he  ) 


ge  ^  nevede7i,  hyrt^en,  lufofZew. 
hi 


Future  (§107). 
(If)  I  shall  (will)  save,  hear,  love. 


ic  scyle  (pille) 
]>t\  scyle  (pille) 
he  scyle  (pille) 


ucYian,  hyran, 


Infian. 


pe  scylew  (pillen) 

1      /  -ii     X  f  neriCMi,  hyr- 
ge  scyle^i  (pille?^)  v  '    •/ 


bi  scyle/i  (pille;?) 


an,  lufean. 


Perfect  (§168). 


Transitive. 
(If  I)  have  saved,  &c. 
Sing,  hsebbe    )  neref?,  h5're(7, 


Plub.  hsebbe^i  )     lu^od. 


Intransitive. 
(If  I)  have  (be)  returned. 


Si     ) 

sm  ) 


gecyrved{e). 


Pluper'fect  (§  168). 


(If  I)  had  saved,  &c. 
Sing,  haefde    )  nerecZ,  hyred, 
Plur.  hx^den  )     Infdd. 


(If  I)  had  (were)  returned. 

^^        >■  gecyrreJ(e). 
pa3re?i  )  °    •' 


04   CONJUGATION  OF  WEAK  VERBS.— WEAK  PKESENTS. 

185.  Imperative  Mode  (§  174). 
Save,  hear,  love. 
SiXG.  I  Pldr. 

2.  nere,  1i}t,  luf(?.  |  ueriad,  hyrad,  \\iUa(t. 

180.  Infinitive  Mode  (§  175). 

To  save,  hear,  love. 

Present.  i\evkm'^nei'ir/a)i,  ncriffean,  nergan/  hyran/  luftaw> 

\\xUga7i,  Iwiigean. 
Gerund,  to  ncvicmne,  hyrcome,  \ufkm7ie. 

Participles. 

Saving,  hearing,  loving. 
Present,  neriende,  hyrende,  \\xilgende. 

saved.       heard.      loved. 
Past nerec?,        hyrec?,       {ge-)  luforZ. 

187.  The  special  perijohrastic  forms  and  the  whole  passive 
voice  of  weak  verbs  are  conjugated  with  the  same  auxiliaries  as 
those  of  strong  verbs  (§§  176-182). 


188.    PRESENTS  {Weak). 

{a.)  Like  oierian  inflect  stems  in  -ia  from  short  roots :  derian, 
hurt ;  helian.,  cover ;  hegian,  hedge ;  scerian.,  apportion ;  spyrian., 
speer ;  sylian,  soil ;  punian,  thunder,  etc. 

(b.)  But  many  stems  in  -ia  from  short  roots  have  compensa- 
tive gemination  of  their  last  consonant  where  it  preceded  i  — 
(throughout  the  present,  except  in  the  indicative  singular  second 
and  third,  and  the  imperative  singular) ;  c^  >  cc,  di  >  dd,  fi  >  hh., 
giycg,  Uyll,  etc.;  indicative  lecge  {-Clegie),  lay,  legest,  leged; 
lecgad  {<legiad);  subjunctive  lecge,  Ucgen;  imperative  lege., 
lecgad ;  infinitive  Zec^/a?!/  part.  pres.  ?ec^ew£?e/  part,  past /e^ec?. 
So  reccan,  reach ;  hreddan,  rescue ;  hahhan.,  have ;  seUan,  give ; 
tellan^tQW',  fremnian,ivSim.Q',  clgnna7i,  clang ;  f??}?^5a?z,  dip;  aiys- 
sa7i,  knock ;  settan,  set,  etc. 

(c.)  Like  hprati  inflect  stems  in  -ia^-e^ —  from  long  roots: 
duilan,  deal ;  deman,  deem  ;  helwpan.,  leave  ;  m&nan,  mean  ; 
sjyrengan.,  spring ;  styrman,  storm  ;  cennan,  bring  forth ;  cyssan, 
kiss,  etc.     Infinitives  in  -ea7i  occur :  scc-can,  §  1 75,  e. 


SYNCOPATED  IMPERFECTS  (WEAK).  95 

(d.)  Like  lufian  inflect  stems  showing  -6  in  the  imperfect : 
dria?i,  honor ;  beorhtkm,  shine  ;  cleopian,  call  ;  hojoian,  hope. 
Past  participles  have  o,  «,  e;  gegearp-6d,  -Cid^  -ed,  prepared. 

189.  SYNCOPATED  IMPERFECTS  {Weah). 

(«.)  Stem  -e  <  -ia  is  syncopated  after  long  roots :  clg-an,  call, 
cig-de  j  dsel-on,  deal,  deel-de ;  dem-an^  deem,  dem-de ;  dr$f-an, 
tvoiihle,  dref-de ;  ftd-cm,  feed ;  hCd-a7i,  heed ;  hf/r-cm,  heai",  l&d- 
an^  lead  ;  he-lsep-an,  leave  ;  inmn-an^  mean  ;  oiijd-an,  urge ;  rtd- 
an^  read ;  sped-an,  speed ;  spreng-an^  spring,  spreng-de  ;  bcern-an, 
burn,  hsern-de ;  styrm-an,  storm;  so  sep-de  and  sep-te,  showed. 

{b.)  Assimilation. — After  a  surd, -c?  becomes  surd  {-t).  (Surds 
2),  t,  c  (x)^  ss,  /i,  not  y  or  s  alone,  §§  17,  30) :  rxp-an^  bind,  rix>p- 
te ;  bet-an,  better,  btt-te ;  grtt-an^  greet,  grtt-te ,  met-ayi,  meet, 
mtt-te  ;  drenc-an^  drench,  drenc-te ;  Ipx-an,  shine,  l^x-te  /  but  l^s- 
an,  release,  Ijjs-de ;  fys-an,  h^?,ie^  ftjs-de  ;  rws-an,  rush,  ncs-dc. 

(c.)  Dissimilation". — The  mute  c  becomes  continuous  (A)  before 
-i :  tHec-an,  teach,  tsbh-te  ;  ec-an,  eke,  eh-te  and  tc-te^  36,  3. 

{d.)  RucKUMLAUT. — Themcs  in  ecg ;  ecc^  ell ;  enc,  cng ;  ec/  ycg, 
yiic,  i-umlaut  for  acg;  ace,  all;  anc,  «"5'/  oc ;  ucg,  itnc,  may 
retain  a  (>a3/  ea ;  o) ;  6;  «>o  in  syncopated  imperfects  (§§ 
209-211):  lecgan,  lay,  Ivegde ;  reccan,  rule,  reahte ;  cpellan,  kill, 
opealde  ;  pejican,  think,  pohte  ;  brengan,  bring,  brohte  /  rtcaii^ 
reck,  rohte ;  bycga?i,  huy,  bohte ;  pyjican,  seem, pohte. 

(e.)  Gemination  is  simplified,  and  mnym  (Rule  13,  page  10) : 
cemi-an,heget,  cen-de ;  clypp-an,  clip,  clip-te ;  cys5-a», kiss,  cys-te; 
dypp-an,  dip,  dyp-te  ;  eht-an,  pursue,  elite  ;  fyll-an,  fill,  fyl-de  ; 
gyrd-an,  gird,  gyrde  ;  hredd-an,  rescue,  hredde  ;  hyrd-an,  harden, 
hyrde ;  hyrt-an,  hearten,  hyrte ;  Jiseft-an,  bind,  hxfte;  lecg-an, 
lay,  leg-de ;  merr-an,  mar,  iner-de ;  mynt-an,  purjoose,  mynte ; 
nemn-an,  name,  nem-de;  rest-an,  rest,  reste  ;  riht-an,  right,  rihte; 
scild-an,  guard,  scilde ;  send-an,  send,  sends ;  spill-an,  spill,  .9^?27- 
de ;  sett-an,  set,  sette ;  still-an,  spring,  stil-de ;  stylt-an,  stand  as- 
tonished, stylte  ;  pemm-an,  s^oW,  pem-de. 

(f.)  EcTiiLiPSis  occurs  (g) :  ccga?i,  call,  cegde,  cede.     See  §  209. 

190.  Past  Participles  are  syncopated  like  imperfects  in  verbs 
having  riickumlaut,  often  in  other  verbs  having  a  surd  root  (§  189, 
b),  less  often  in  other  verbs:  sellan,  give,  sealde,  seald ;  ge-sec-an, 
seek,  ge-s6h-te,  gesoht ;  sett-an,  set,  sette,  seted  and  set;  send-an, 
send,  sende,  sended  and  send ;  hedn,  raise,  heiXd,  raised. 


96 


ILLUSTRATIONS  OF  UJMLAUT  AND  ASSIMILATION. 


191.  Presents. — Illustrations  of  Umlaut. 


Conjugation (I.) 

drepaw, 
strike. 
Sing. —  1.    dropc 

.^   (dnp(e)si! 
"'  idrcpesiJ 

(drepef^ 
Plue. —       drepac? 

Conjugation...  (IV.) 

fare. 
Sing. —  1.    fare 

(^•xv{e)st 
'  (fares^ 
3    C^-xr{e)d 
'  [faret^ 
Plue. —      farad 


(I.)  (I-) 

cuina7i,       heorgan, 
co))ie.  (juard. 

cumc  beorgc 

cym{e)st  j  byrbsi 
cuvaest      \  hcoxgcst(y) 
cyi\\{e)d  j  hyrhd      J 
cwiwcd       (  beorg(?rf(?/)( 
cwmad        hQomad 


(III.) 
^■cMan, 
shove. 
scHfe 
scyf(e)si 
sctlfesi 
scyf(e)rf  (<) 
BcMed 
?,QMad 


(IV.) 
bacaw, 

hake. 
bace 
becs^ 
baccs^ 
becf^ 
haced 
bacac^ 


j  becs^        j  felsi?  j 

j  becf^        j 


(V.) 
feallaw, 

fealle 

Mst 

fealle^^ 

Md 

fQ2\\ed 

feallac^ 


(V.) 

]a,ca?^, 

leap. 

lace 

la)csi5 

laces^ 

j  l^c(e)^ 

( lace^ 

\sicad 


192.  Illustrations  of  Assimilation. 


Conjugation....  (I.) 
etaw, 
ea^. 
Sing. —  1.    ete 

2.  r^^'^'^ 
X^lest 

rite(/,  it 

(.ete*^ 

Plue. —       QX.ad 


treda;?, 
tread. 
trede 
ti'i(de)s^ 
tredesi 
ti-it 

tredef^(z) 
tvedar? 


j  tn(de)s^  j 
]  tredesi  ( 
j  ti-it  j 

( XxQ^edii)  \ 


(I-) 
binda«, 

hind. 
binde 
bin(t)si 
bindes^ 
bint 
bindef^ 
binda*^ 


Sing. —  1. 


(IV.) 

(in.)  slean< 

leogan,  sleahaw, 

lie.  slay. 

leoge  slea 

j  Vyhst  j  slehs^  (y) 

(  Xao^est  \  sle^ffest 

fbirst(e<f?)  j  lyhf^  j  slehr/(?/) 

'  (berste^     (  leoger?  i  sleaged 

Plue. —      berstat^      leo^ad  slead 


Conjugation (I.) 

herstan, 

hurst. 
berste 
|birst 
'bevstes^ 


cpedan, 
quoth. 

cpede 
j  cpis^ 
(  cpedesi{ 
j  cpid 
(  cpede^ 

cpeda^ 

(IIL) 
fleun< 
Aeohan, 

flee. 
fleo 


flyhs« 

flyhdf 
fleoc? 


(III.) 
creup«><, 

creep. 
creope 
j  cryp(e)s« 
I  creupesi 
j  cryp(e)^ 
I  creopec? 

(V.) 
gr6pa?z, 

grow. 
grope 
j  grcpsi 
(  gropes^ 

(  gropet^ 
gropacif 


(I.) 
lesa?2, 

collect. 
lese 
Iis« 
leses^ 
lisf 
lesef? 
lesarf 

(I.) 
licgaw, 

lie. 
liege 
ligs^ 
licgesi 
j  li(g)«f 
(  li(c)ger/ 
Yvc^iad 


VARIATIONS.  OF  THE  PRESENT  INDICATIVE.  97 

Vakiatioxs  of  Present  Indicative. 

193.  Stem  4>  -e  in  the  singular  second  and  third  person  works 
on  the  root  vowel  differently  from  -a  >  -e  of  the  other  persons. 

(1.)  Root  i  is  here  unchanged,  while  other  forms  have  a-um- 
laut  {i>e),  §  32,  or  breaking  (i>eo),  §  33:  drepan ;  steorfan, 
starve,  steorfe,  stirf{e)st,  stirf{e)ct,  steorfad;  but  y,  not  ^■,  is  usu- 
ally found  with  eo,  and  often  incorrectly  with  e. 

(2.)  Here  is  i-umlaut  of  a,    ea,    eo,  u,  a,   o,    ea,    eo,  t!l, 
to  e,  e(y),   y,   y,  &,  e,  e(y),   y,   y: 
bacan,  fecdlan,  sleahan  >  sledn^  heorgwi,  cuman,  Idcan^  gropan, 
hledpan^  creopan,  sctifcm.    §  32. 

(3.)  Here  is  shifting  of  a>a?.'  far  an ;  a>  e  is  rare.     §  41. 

194.  Stem  -i>-e  of  the  singular  second  and  third  person  is 
often  syncopated  in.  strong  verbs  and  weak  verbs  of  the  first  class- 
Then  Variation  of  root  vowel  remains. 

Assimilation  of  consonants  follows. 
Gemination  is  simplified:  etan^  td^t  (§  35,  i?) ; 
tredan,  dst  >  st  (§  35,  ^1),  ddy  t  (§  36,  5) ;  hindan,  ndst  >  7itst  > 
nst  (§  35,  A),  ndd>nt  (§  30,  5) ;  cpedan,  dst  >  st  (§  35,  A)^  ddy 
d  (§  20, 13) ;  lesan^  sst  >  st  (§  20, 13),  sd  >  st  (§  35,  B) ;  berstan^ 
stst>st,  std>st  (§  35,  J3) ;  leogan,  gst >  hst,  gd>hd  (§  35,  B) ; 
drifan,  drive,  drif{e)st,  drtf{e)d  or  dnft  (§  35,  B). 

(a.)  The  ending  of  the  third  person  -d  {-p)  was  a  surd  (/;)  when  these 
changes  were  established  (e.  g.  dd^t).  Gothic  grammars  give  -p,  but  -d 
is  often  in  the  manuscripts ;  Old  Saxon  grammars  give  -d,  but  -th  is  often 
found.  English  has  uniformly -;/*  =  -/».  In  Gothic,  any  dental  +  a  preced- 
ing dental  =  5< ;  +  a  preceding  labial  =ft ;  +  a  preceding  guttural  =  A/,  a 
law  which  illustrates  the  frequent  appearance  of  final  t  in  Anglo-Saxon.  In 
Anglo-Saxon  folkspecch  there  was  doubtless  variation  in  the  sound  of  this 
ending,  as  in  Gothic  and  Old  Saxon ;  in  syncopated  forms  it  was  surd  after 
surds  :  crypd  (p),  creeps  ;  drincd  (p),  drinks ;  sonant  after  sonants  (rare)  : 
bringd,  brings  (z)  ;  but  the  predominant  sound  was  always  surd,  as  in  Gothic 
and  English.     Compare  liget  for  liged,  lieth. 

{b.)  Of  the  three  forms  given  of  the  singular  second  and  third  persons,  the 
syncopated  (dripd)  is  the  common  prose  form,  the  unsyncopated,  unvaried,  or 
varied  by  i-umlaut  {driped,  byrged)  is  more  frequent  in  poetry,  the  varied 
by  a-umlaut  (drcped)  is  a  later  conformation  with  the  other  persons. 

195.  Yorbs  from  roots  in  -h  contract  (§  52) :  sleun  <.  sleahan  ; 
fleon  '^fleohan. 

19G.  Stems  in  4a  with  compensative  gemination  hold  it  except 

G 


98  SUMMARY  OF  VARIATIONS  IN  CONJUGATION. 

in  the  indicative  singular  second  and  third — sometimes  through- 
out; hut  the  imperative  singular  has  -e  (§§  188,  h  ;  109  ;  207,  d) : 
licgcui  <  liffkcii,  lie,  imperative  h'[/c. 

197.  Variation  in  Stuong  Impeefects. 


cpedan, 

slcahan> 

seahan  > 

ceosan, 

quoth. 

slean,  slay. 

seon,  see. 

choose. 

SlNG.- 

—c-pxd 

sloh  {g) 

seah 

ccas 

cp&de 

si  u  are 

sjege,  sape 

cure 

cpsed 

sloh  iff) 

seah 

ccas 

Plur.- 

— cpjedon 

sloc^on 

sffigon,  sapon 

curon 

Part,- 

— cpcdcn 

sla^gen 

sepen,  scgen 

coren : 

dy  d  (§  30,  2) ;  A  >  r7  (§  36,  2) ;  .9  >  r-  (§  35,  3,  b) ;  h  >p  m  sape 
(Gothic  saihvan)  is  really  hp^p  (§  35,  3,  b).  So  inflect  Itdaii, 
lad,  lido7i,  sail,  etc.  (§  205) ;  seodan,  secld,  sicdon,  seethe,  etc. 
(§  206);  tedh,  tiige<te6han,  tug;  freosan,  freeze  (frore) ;  for- 
leosan,  lose  (forlorn) ;  hreosan,  rush  ;  pesan,  be,  p.  p.  pesen,  etc. 
(§  206). 

198.  Summary  of  Variations  in  Conjugation. 

(«,)  The  root  vowel  may  take  five  forms : 

(1.)  Throughout  the  present  except  the  indicative  singular  sec- 
ond and  third  persons. 

(2.)  In  the  indicative  singular  second  and  third  persons. 

(3.)  In  the  imperfect  singular  first  and  third  persons. 

(4.)  In  the  other  forms  of  the  imperfect. 

(5.)  In  the  passive  participle. 

{b.)  Consonant  assimilation  works  mainly  on  the  indicative  sin- 
gular second  and  third  persons,  and  on  the  weak  imperfects  and 
l^assive  participles. 

(e.)  We  give  the  present  indicative  singular  first,  second,  and 
third  persons,  the  imperfect  indicative  singular  first  jDcrson  and 
plural  first  person,  and  the  j)assive  participle. 

{(1.)  Only  the  varied  syncopated  forms  of  the  present  indicative  second 
and  third  persons  are  often  given  ;  the  other  regular  forms  generally  occur, 
but  may  be  easily  supplied  {^  193,  b).  Any  variation  of  vowel,  or  assimila- 
tion of  consonants,  which  has  been  given  in  the  phonology,  ar\d  is  here  re- 
corded as  found  in  any  verb,  may  be  looked  for  with  any  similar  verb.  The 
variations  of  the  imperfect  plural  -on  {^^  166, 170)  are  not  given.  The  final 
root  consonants  determine  the  arrangement,  — labials,  dentals,  gutturals. 
Vowels  in  parenthesis  after  a  word  are  variations  of  its  root  vowels. 


FIRST  CONJUGATION.— VARIATION.  99 

First  Coxjugatiox,  -/a. 

199.  —  I.  Roots  ending  in  a  single  consonant  not  a  liquid: 

Ablaut  (z;  a,  a;  i)^(e;  se,se;  e)  ;  t > e,  a-umlaut ;  a > a?,  a >aj>e,  shift- 
ing (^^  158,  32,  41)  ;  (y,  ie)  <C  i,  bad  spelling,  is  frequent ;  variation  of  con- 
sonants, «^  194.  Layamon  and  Ormulum  hold  the  Ang.-Sax.  ablaut,  though 
with  varying  spelling ;  in  Old  English  it  is  broken  up,  especially  in  the  im- 
perfect, where  both  numbers  at  last  are  alike.  English  ablaut  (ee,  ea;  a,  a ; 
ee,  ea)  :=(«,•  a  or  e;  i):  eat,  ate  (et),  eaten;  for  stems  with  ^-breaking 
and  in  -ia  (t;  a,a;  t)-  ^^d,  bade,  bidden;  e>i,  progression  (^38);  aj>e, 
shifting  (^  41).  Most  of  these  verbs  vary  in  English  from  their  type  in  con- 
formation with  the  forms  in  ^  200,  and  with  weak  verbs. 

Indicative  Tkesent.  Impekf.  Sing.  Pluu.  Part.  Past. 

1st.  2d.  3d.  (  drepen        \    l  -y 

drepe,  drip{e)st,  drip{e)d  {p) ;    drsep,  drxpon ;  |  (-^^^  x  goo.  )  ^""*-'^' 

spefe,  spif(e)st,  spif(e)d(p,  0  ;  spa'f,  spgtfon ;  spefen,      sleep. 

pefe,pif(e)st,pif(e)d(p,t);     ps'f,pxfon<ie);  pefen,       weave. 

ete,  it(e)st,  it  ited  (ij,  ie,  e) ;        ict,  ieton ;  eten,  eat. 

frete,frit{e)st,fritfrited;        frxt,  fr&ton;  freten,      eat  up. 

mete,mit(e)st,  mit ;  mwt,  msbion ;  meten,       mete. 

cnede,  cni{de)st,  cmt ;  cnwd,  cnsedon ;  cneden,     knead. 

trede,  trist  tndes,  tnt  tnded )  ^^^^^^  ^^^^^^  .  ^^.^^^^^^      ^^^^^ 

(y,  le,  e)  ;  ) 

cpede,  cp'ist,  cpid  (y)  cpeded;       cpxd,cp&don;  cpeden,     quoth. 

Use,  list,  list ;  Ixs,  l&son ;  lesen,        gather. 

ge-nese,  -nist,  -nist ;  -nass,  -nesson ;  -nesen,      recover. 

(pese,  pesest,  pesed)  rare  ;  pses,  pseron ;  ge-pesen,  be 

sp(r)ece  {x),  spriest,  spricdij));  sprsec,  spreecoji;  sprecen,    speak. 

prece,  priest,  pncdip);  prssc,  preecon ;  preccn,     wreak. 

pege,  pigst  (Jist),  pigd  (hd)  ;       pxg  (h),  p&gon  {a,  e)  ;  pegen,       carry. 
brece,see  (i  200;  hpete,  whet;  /;erfe,  bind;  5/ece,  stick,  are  doubtful;  so  also 
{fitan,  arripere ;  hnipan,  collabi ;  gipan,  hiare  ;  wrejse,  scrape  ; /^ec/c,  wed). 

(/-breaking :  i >  {ie,  io,  eo>y);  ayeay  e,  d>edy  e.    §§  33, 35. 

gife  {ie,  &c.),  gifst,  gif{e)d  Q) ;   geaf  Ct,  e),  gedfon  (e) ;     gifen,  give. 
for-gite  (le,  &c.),  -gitst,  -git ;       -geat  (w,  e),  -geaton  (e)  ;  -giten,  forget. 

A-breaking:  ^■>  eo,  a>ea  >  e.     §§33,35. 

seohe  (sco),  sihst,  si(h)d  (ij^eo)  ;  seah,  s&gon  (e),  sdpon ;  ge-scpen,-g-,  see. 
ge-feohe  {-fed), -fihst, -filh)d ;       -feah  {e), -fwgon ;  -fegen,     rejoice. 

Stems  in  -ia  (compensative  gemination,  §  196),  no  a-umlaut,ov  late. 

The  imperative  has  -e :  frige,  site,  but  plur.  picgead  occurs. 

fricire,  fns{e)st{hst),fri2{c)d\     .         ..  {ge-frigen\  . 

jriUf^(.,jii^\.'^j     V      ^>j    to^  ^    L  fncg^froigon;       1    /       f       >•  mquire. 

{hd,p);  >  v   V^)^))      -' 

liege,  ligst,  lig{e)d{t),  lid  (/) ;        Ixg,  l&gon  {a,  e) ;     ligen,  lie. 


100 


FIRST  CONJUGATION.— VARIATION. 


Indioativb  Pbksbnt. 
lat.         2d.  3d.  Imtekf.  Sino.  rum.  Paet.  Past. 

picgc,  pigst,  pig{e)d(hd);  peah{pah'),  pvigon{a,c);  pigen,       take. 
sittc,  sit^e^st,  sit ;  swt,  sivton  ;  ge-seten,  sit. 

bidde,  bi^dc^st,  bit ;  bwd,bd;don;  beden,        bid. 

Add  fecge,  f call,  fetch;  spritte,  sitrout;  (/i/jcce,  blame ;  snzcce,  sneak)  ? 

200. — 11.  Roots  ending  in  a  single  liquid : 

Ablaut  (/ ;  a,  a ;  u)^{i  {eo,  y) ;  o,  6;  u)  (e ;  x,  &;  o)  ;  t^ieo,  y),  a^o, 
a  >  6,  m-assimilation  ;  i  >  e,  «  >  o,  a-u«ilaut ;  a  >  e%',  a  >  &,  shifting ;  i  >eo, 
a>ea,  r-bieaking ;  eo>?/,  i-umlaut :  (a;,  ea)>e,  shifting.    ^^158,35,32,41. 

English  ablaut  (ea;  a  or  o;  o):  steal,  stole,  stolen;  ca,  a,  ^  199;  o 
lengthened  in  the  past  part.,  conft)rmation  in  the  imperfect. 

nime  (eo,  y),  nim(e)st,  nim{e)d ;  nam  (o),  namon  (o)  ;       numen,   take. 

cpime'^\cim{e)st\cim{e)d    \  cpam. {o)\  cpamon  {o)\  cumen\ 

■      -  ;    (y)^   ]-  come. 


cume      )  cym(e)sl)  cym(e)d  )    com         j  comon 
cpele,  cpilst,  cpild;  cpxl,  cpMon; 


ge-dpelc,  -dpilst,  -dpild ; 

hele,  hilst,  hild ; 

hpele,  hpilst,  hpild; 

stele,  stilst,  stild; 

spele,  spilst,  spild; 

bere,  birst  (y),  bird  (y)  ; 

scere  (eo),  scirst  (y),  scird(y)  ; 

tere,  tirst,  tird  (y)  ; 

ge-pperc,  -ppirst,  -ppird; 

brece,  bricst,  bricd  (p) ; 


-dpwl,  -dp&lon ; 
hxl,  h&lon; 
hpxl,  hp'Mon ; 
steel,  st&lon; 
spiel,  sp&lon ; 
bwr,  bseron ; 
scser  (ea,  e),  sc&ron  ; 
txr,  tairon ; 

-ppxr,  -ppseron; 

brxc,  brxcon ; 


cpolen,    kill. 
-dpolen,  err. 
holen,      conceal. 
hpolen,    sound. 
stolen,     steal. 


sweal. 
bear, 
shear, 
tear. 


spolen, 
boren, 
scoren, 
toren, 

i-pporen^ 
-puren  >-weld. 
-priien,  J 
brocen,    break. 


201. — III.  Roots  ending  in  two  consonants, the  first  a  nasal: 

Ablaut  (i;  a,  u;  u) ;  i^-y,  bad  spelling,  is  frequent;  a>o,  nasal  assimi- 
lation {^^  158,  35) ;  variation  of  consonants,  ^  194. 

Final  gemination  is  often  preserved.  Unsyncopated  forms  are  very  com- 
mon (^  194).  English  ablaut  {i ;  a  or  ii ;  v)  :  swim,  swam  or  swum,  swum; 
but  stems  in  -nd  have  progression  (I;  ou;  ou)=^di;  du;  du) :  find, found. 

hlimme,  hlimst,  hlimd;  hla?n{o),  hlummon;  hlummen,  sound. 

gnmme,  grimst,  grimd;  gram  (o),  grummon ;  grummen,  rage. 

spimme,  spimst,  spimd;  spam  (o),  spummon ;  spummen,  swim. 

cHmbe  (^  36),  climst,  climd;  clamb  (omm),  clumhon ;  clumben,  climb. 

ge-limpe,  -limpst,  -limpd  (p)  ;  -lump,  -lumpon ;  -lumpen,  happen. 

gc-rimpe,  -rimpst,  -rimpd  (p)  ;  -ramp,  -rumpon ;  -rumpen,  rumple. 

brinne  (beorne,  ^  204),  brinst,  |  ^^^^^  ^^^^^^^  .  ^^^^^^^^^ 


brind; 
on-ginne,  -ginst,  -gind; 


-gan,  -gunnon ; 


burn, 
begin. 


FIKST  CONJUGATION.— VARIATION. 


101 


b-linne,  Imst,  lin{ni)ct;  Ian,  lunnon; 

n'wne  (eorne,  §  203),  rinst,  rind;    ran,  runnon ; 
sinne,  sinst,  sind; 
spinne,  spinst,  spind; 

pinne,  pinst,  pind; 


san,  sunnon ; 
span,  spunnon , 

pan,  punnon ; 


stinte,  stin(t)st,  stint; 
printe,  prin(t)st,  print ; 
binde,  bin(t)st,  bint; 
finde,  fin(t)st,  fint ; 
grinde,  grin(t)st,  grint ; 
hrinde,  hrin(t)st,  hrint ; 

spinde,  spin(_t')st,  spint; 

pinde,  pin(t)st,  pint ; 
pinde,  pin{t)st,  pint ; 

crince,  crincst,  crincd{li); 


d-cpince,  -cpincst,  -cpincd  (p)  ; 


slant,  stunton ; 
prant,  prunton ; 
band  (o),  biindon ; 
(funde)  fand  (o),  fundon  ; 
grand,  griindon ; 
hrand,  hrundon ; 


punnen, 

stunten, 
Jjrunten, 
bunden, 
funden, 
grunden, 
hrunden. 


spand,  spundon; 

pand,  pundon ; 
pand,  pundon ; 

crane,  cruncon ; 


-cpanc,  -cpuncon , 
dranc,  druncon ; 


prince,  drincst,  drincd  {Ji)  ; 

for-scrince,  -scrincst,  -scrincd ) 

•^  V    -scranc,  -scruncon; 


since,  sincst,  sincd  (p)  ; 
stince,  stincst,  stincd  (p)  ; 
spince,  spincst,  spincd  (p)  ; 
bringe  (cge),  brings t,  bringd; 

clinge,  clingst,  clingd; 


sane,  suncon ; 

stanc,  stuncon; 

spane,  spuncon ; 

brang  {o),  brungon ;    brungen,      bring. 

,  ,  ,  (wither 

clang,  clungon ;  clungon, 


lunnen,       cease. 
runnen,       run. 
sunnen,       think. 
spunnen,     spin, 
(fight 
((win). 

stint. 

swell. 

bind. 

find. 

grind. 

push. 

spunden,    \  ,  ., 

(.(swoon). 

punden,       swell. 

punden,       wind. 

(yield 
cruneen,    i,    ■       > 
(.(cringe). 

(go  out 
-epuneen,  ||^^^^^j^^ 

druneen,      drink. 

-scruneen,   shrink. 

suneen,  sink. 
sluneen,  stink. 
spuncen,      toil. 


1  (cling). 

cringe{ege),cring(e)st,cring{e)d;  crang  {o),  crungon;     crungen,  |     .' 

ge-fringc,-fring{e)st,-fring{e)d;  -frang,  -frungon;        -frungen,    ask. 
geonge ;  gang,  gungon ;  go. 

gringe,  gring{e)st,  gnng{e)d ;     grang,  grungon ;         grungen,  \^^' 

singe,  sing{e)st,  sing{e)d ;  sang  (o),  sungon;         sungen,  sing. 

springe,  spnng{e) St,  spring{c)d;  sprang  (o) ,  sprungon ;  sprungen,  spring. 

stinge,  sling{e)sl,  sting{e)d;         slang,  stungon ;  stungen,  sting. 

spinge,  sping{e)st,  sping{e)d ;       spang  (o),  spungon;     spungen,  swing, 

ge-pinge,  -ping{e)st,  -ping{e)d;    -Jjang  (o), -pungon;      -pungen,  grow. 

pringe,  pring{c)st,  pring(e)d;      prang  (o),  prungon ;    prungen,  throng. 

ippinge,  Pping{e)st,  Pping{e)d;    ppang,  Ppungon  ;  Ppiingen),  j  ^^^^^ j^j„_ 

pringe,  pring{e) St, pring{e)d;     prang  {o),  prungon;    prungen,     wring. 
Add  jcn'mme, shrimp;  slincan,  sMnk  ;  slingan,s\mQ. 


102 


FIRST  CONJUGATION.— VARIATION. 


202. — IV.  Root  in  two  consonants,  ilic  first  //,  or  three  con- 
sonants Avith  metathesis  of  r  : 

Ablaut  (/ ;  o,  u  ;  u)  >  (e ;  .r,  u;  o)  ;    t^c,  u^o,  a-umlaut  (^  32) ;  a> 
.•p>e,  shifting  (^  41).     Umlaut  and  shifting  stopped  by  n.     §^  200,201. 

IsDicvTivE  Peesent.  Lmpekf.  Sing.         Tlur.  Paet.  Past. 

breffde  )  bregdest  >  brcgded  }  bnrsrd  )  brm^don  \ ,  ^,  ,  )  ,  • , 
I  J  >■  7  V.N  .  r  7  f  (7  J  C  1  1  <broden,brc- yhraid. 
brcde    )  bri{t)st    )  brit         )  brxd         )  brudon     |     ,       (S  iqq  ) 

stregde}  strigdest\  strigded)  strxgd     \  slritgdoji   strogden        j  strow, 


strede  )  stri{t)st  )  strit        )  strxd       J 

frigne 

{e?) 
frine 

berste, 
persce, 


I                 ^    (e)  lfrugnon\frugncn 

J.  ■     ,      {    r  ■    4.      i    y  (  frunon   j    fruncn 

frinsl     )  fnnd      )  jran  )  ^                 •' 

birst,     birst{cd)  (ie) ;  bsrst,  burston  ;    borsten, 

pirscest,     pirsced;    pxrsc,  purscon;    porscen, 


I  sprinkle. 

>-  ask. 

burst, 
thresh. 


203. — V.  Root  in  two  consonants,  first  a  trill  (I  or  r) : 

(a.)  Ablaut  (i;  a,  u ;  ii)^{e;  ea,u;  o) ;  i^e,  w>o,  a-umlaut  (1^32); 
a^ea  (l-breaking,  ^  33)>eo  (irregular  spelling),  ox  pea^ peo,  p-assimila- 
tion  (^  35)  ?  Unsyncopated  forms  in  e  are  common  :  helpest,  helped.  En- 
glish ablaut  {e;  a,  e  or  d;  o) ;  ea>«  or  e,  shifting,  ^  38,  yl;  d,  ^  200  ;  but  all 
imperfects  have  become  weak:  help;  (halp,  help,  holp),  helped;  (hulpeh), 
helped. 

belle,  bilst,  bild;  beal,  bullon;  bollcn,       bellow. 

spelle,  spilst,  spild ; 

helpe-,  hilpst  (e),  hilpd  {p) ; 

delfe,  dilfst,  dilfd; 

melte,  miltst,  milt ; 

spelte,  spiltst,  spilt  (i^ie,y) ; 

be-telde,  -til{t)st,  -tilt ;  teald,  tuldon  ; 

melee,  milcst,  milcd{p) ;  mealc,  mulcon ; 

beige,  bilgst  (hst),  bilgd  (hd)  ;  hcalg(h),  bulgon; 

felge,  filgst  {hst) ,  filgd  {hd)  ;  fealg  (A) ,  fulgon  ; 


(speal  {speoll,  Rask),>         „  „ 

i  „  y  spollen,     swell. 

(.     spuUon ;  )    ^ 


healp,  hiilpen ;  holpen, 

dealf,  dulfon ;  dolfen, 

mcalt,  multon ;  molten, 

spealt  {eof),  spulton;  spolten, 


tolden, 
molcen, 
holgen, 
folgen, 
Cspolgen   1 


help, 
delve, 
melt, 
die. 

cover  up. 
milk, 
be  wroth, 
go  into. 


spelge,  spilgst  {hst),  spilg{e)d{hd) ;  spealg{h),  spulgon ;  <  {spelgen, ^-swallow. 
Add  d-selce  (e>eo,  ea),  sulk.  t  Koch),  3 

(/-breaking,  i>ieyy  (§  33) ;   ^■>e  is  also  found,  a-umlaut, 
§§32,  194,  ^•. 

gille  {e,  ie,  y),  gilst  {ie,  y),  gild  {ie,  y)  ;         geal,  gullon  ;      gollen,    yell. 
gilpe  {ie,  y),  gilpst  {ie,  y),  gilpd  {p)  {ie,  y) ;  gealp,  gulpon ;   golpen,  boast. 
glide  {ie,y),  gil{t)st  {ie,y),  gilt  {ie,y) ;         geald,  guidon;  golden,  pay. 


SECOND  CONJUGATIOX.— VARIATION. 


103 


burn. 


204.  — (^>.)  Before  r  (and  h) : 

Ablaut  {i;  a,u;  u)^{eo;  ea,u;  o);  i>eo,  a>ea,  breaking  (^33);  m>o, 
a-umlaut  {^  32).  After  labials  (/>,  m,  p),  eo  may  go  to  u  {^  35,  2)  ;  y  for  i 
abounds.  Unsyncopated  broken  forms  prevail :  peorpest,  peorped.  Vowels 
brought  before  r  by  metathesis  often  retain  their  old  umlaut:  rinne^rnie ; 
brinne'^birne  ;  bersce.,  perste  (^  202).     English  like  (a) ;  eo>e,  ^  38,  A. 

georre,  gyrst,  gyrd;  gear,  gurron ;         gorren,     whur. 

eorne  (i.v),  yrnle)st  (i,  eo),  iirn{e)d}  (earn)  arnio),    ") 

\  ).//'  ./     \  '      \i      n  J     \  I    ^\  (  urnen,      run. 

(j,  eo)  ;  J      union ;  ) 

beorne{i,y),  beorn{e)st  (y),  bcorn{e)d\  beam  {barn)  (o),  |  . 

(y) ;  )      bunion ;             i 

meorne  {u),  myrnst,  myrnd;  mearn,  murnon  ;     women,  mourn. 

speorne  {u,o),  spyrnst,  spyrnd;  spearn,  spurnon ;   spornen,  spurn. 

peorpe  {u,y),  pyrpst,  pyrpdip);  pearp,  purpon ;       porpen,  throw. 

ceorfe,  cyrfst,  cyrfd ;  cearf,  curfon;        corf  en,  carve. 

deorfe,  dyrfst,  dyrfd;  dearf,  durfon ;        dorfen,  suffer. 

hpeorfe  {u,o,y),  hpyrfst,  hpyrfd;  hpearf,  hpurfon ;    hporfen,  return. 

steorfe,  styrfst,  styrfd;  stcarf,  slur/on;      storfen,  \      ' 

speorfe,  spyrfst,  spyrfd  {t)  ;  spearf,  spm-fon  ;     sporfen,  cleanse. 

peorde  (m,  y),  pyrst,  pyrd{ed)  ;  peard,  purdon ;       porden,  become. 

beorce,byrcst,byrcJ) ;  bearc,  bureau;         borcen,  bark, 

speorce,  spyrcst,  spyrcd  (p)  {sporced)  ;  spearc,  spurcon  ;    sporcen,  faint. 

beorge,  byrgst{hst),  byrg{e)d{hd);       bcarg{h),burgon;  borgen,  guard. 

fcohte,  fyhtst,  fyht ;  feaht,  fuhton ;       fohten,  fight. 


205.  Second  Conjugation,  y'i. 

Ablaut  {i ;  a;  i;  i)  \  i^y,  i^y,  bad  spelling ;  5c-breaking  or  A-breaking 
a^ea  (i'^iof),  i'^eo  (^  33) ;  a>aj,  shifting.  English  ablaut  (J;  d;  t)  = 
(di;  6;  i)  ;    i'^di,  d^o,  progression  (^  38)  :   drive,  drove,  driven. 

dpine,  dptn{e)st,  dpin{c)d ;  dpdn,  dpinon ;  dpinen, 

gine,  gin{e)st,  gtn{e)d;  gdn,  ginon  ;  ginen, 

hrine,  hrin{e)st,  hrin{e)d;  hrdn,  hrinon ;  hrinen, 

hptne,  hpin{e)st,  hpin{e)d;  hpdn,  hpinon;  hpinen, 

seine,  scin{e)st,  scin{e)d; 

gripe,  grip{e)st,  gr'ip{c)d  (/>) ;  grdp,  gripon  ; 

nipe,  nip{c)st,  nip{e)d  {p) ;  ndp,  nipon  ; 

ripe,  rtp{e)st,  rip{e)d  (p)  ;  rdp,  ripon ; 

to-sripan,-dip{e)st,-srip{c)d{p);  -slap,  -slipon; 

he-life,  -lif{e)st,  -lif{c)d;  -Idf,  -lifon; 

clife,  clif{e)st,  clif{c)d;  cldf,  clifon; 

drife,  drif{e)st,  drif{e)d  (ft) ;  drdf,  drifon ; 

serif e,  serif {e)st,  serif (e)d;  scrdf,  serif  on; 

slife,  sllf{r)st,  slif{e)d;  sldf,  si  if  on;  slifcn. 


scdn  (ed),  scinon  (io) ;  scinen, 

gripen, 

nipen, 

ripen, 

-slipen, 

-lifen, 

clifen, 

drifen, 

serif  en. 


dwindle. 

yawn. 

touch. 

whiz. 

shine. 

gripe. 

darken. 

reap. 

dissolve. 

remain. 

cleave. 

drive. 

shrive, 
(split, 
(sliver. 


104 


SECOND  CONJUGATION.— VARIATION. 


Impkufect 

SiNQ.        I'LUK. 

spaf,  spifon ; 

spap  {an),  spipon ; 
bat,  hiton ; 

flat,  fliton ; 

hndt,  hniion ; 
slat,  sliton  ; 
smdt,  smiton ; 
ppdt,  ppiton  (eo) ; 

V  pat,  piton; 

plat,  pliton  ; 
prut,  priton ; 


Indicative  Tuesent. 
1st.  2d.  3il. 

sptfe,  spif{c)st,  sp'if{e)it; 

splpe,  sp'ip{c)st,  sp'ip{c)it ; 
lite,  bU{e)st,  hlt{cit)  ; 

fltte,  flit{e)st,  flit ; 

hnite,  hnit{e)st,  hnit ; 

slite,  sltt{c)st,  slit; 

smite,  smit{c)st,  smit ; 

Iplle,  PpU{c)st,  pptt{cd) ; 

pile,  pit(€)st,  pit(ed') ;  subj.  pttan, 

yputanyutan,  §§  176,  224,  c. 

plite,  pltt{€)st,  plit{ect) ; 

prtte,  prit{c)st,  prit{e(t) ; 

bide,  bidest  {bi{t)st),  bided  {bit)  ;  bad,  bidon ; 

aide,  ct{t)st,  cit ;  cad,  cidon  {cidde)  ; 

{1)  lide,  list,  tided  ltd;  lad,  lidon; 

glide,  glist,  gilt ;  glad,  glidon  ; 

guide,  gnist,  gnit ;  gnud,  gnidon ; 

hlide,  Mist,  hlit ;  hldd,  hlidon  ; 

ride,  rist,  rit ;  rdd,  ridon  (io)  ?  ; 

slide,  slist,  slit ;  sldd,  slidon ; 

stride,  strist,  strit ;  strdd,  stridon  ; 

pride,  prist,  prit ;  prdd,  pridon  ; 

Vide,  li{de)st,  lid{ed) ;  lad,  lidon; 

mide,  mist,  mid;    ■  mad,  midon; 

scride,  scrist,  scrid;  scrdd,  scridon; 

slide,  sli{de)st,  slid;  sldd,  slidon; 

snide,  snist,  snid;  sndd,  snidon; 

pride,  prist,  prid;  prdd,  pridon  {d) ; 

pride,  prist,  prid;  prdd,  pridon  ; 

d-grise,  -grist,  -grist ;  -grds,  -grison ; 

rise,  risest  {rist),  rised  {rist)  ;  rds,  rison; 

nice,  blic{e)st,  blic{e)d  {]>) ;  bide,  hlicon  ; 

sice,  sic{e)st,  sic{e)d  {p) ;  sac,  sicon  ; 

snice,  snic{e)st,  snic{e)d  {p) ;  sndc,  snicon; 

strice,  stric{e)st,  stric{e)d  {p);  strdc,  stricon; 

spice,  spic{e)st,  spic{e)d  {p)  ;  spdc,  spicon; 

pice,  pic{e)st,  pic{e)d  {p) ;  pdc,  picon ; 

hnige,hnig{e)st{hst),hnis:{e)d}  ,    ^,  ,   .    ,    . 

(htt\-  V  hnah{g),  hmgon; 

mige,  mihst,  mihd;  mdh,  migon ; 

sige,  sihst,  sihd ;  sdh,  sigon; 

stige,  stihst,  stihd;  stdh,  stigon ; 


Taet.  Past. 
spifen, 

spipcn, 
bilcn, 

fliten, 

hniten, 
sliten, 
smitcn, 
ppiten, 

piten, 

pi  i  ten, 

priten, 

biden, 

ciden, 

liden, 

gliden, 

gniden, 

hliden, 

riden, 

sliden, 

stride?!, 

priden, 

liden, 

miden. 


scriden{d),  go 


(sweep, 
(turn. 

spew. 

bite, 
(flito, 
Istrive. 

butt. 

slit. 

smite. 

cut  off. 
(see,  visit, 
(impute. 

look. 

write. 

bide. 

chide. 

grow. 

glide. 

rub. 

cover. 

ride. 

slide. 

stride. 

bud,  grow. 

sail. 

hide. 


sliden, 

sniden, 

priden, 

priden, 

-grisen, 

risen, 

blicen, 

sicen, 

snicen, 

stricen, 

spicen, 

picen, 


slit. 

cut. 

wreathe. 

bud,  grow. 

dread. 

rise. 

shine. 

sigh. 

sneak. 

go,  streak. 

deceive. 

yield. 


hnigen,        nod. 

({mingo), 
*  (water. 

sigen,  sink. 

stigen,         ascend. 


THIRD  CONJUGATION.— VAEIATION. 


105 


plge,  pihst,  pVut ;  pdh,pigon;  pigen,         fight. 

lihe,  lih{e)st,  lih{e)d  (y)  ;        Idh  (ea)  {lag),  ligon ;     ligen,  lend,  give. 

sihe  {seo),  sih{e)st,  sih{e)d;    sdh,  sigon  {h) ;  sigen  (h),    strain. 

tthe  (led),  tihst  (y),  tihd  \y) ;  tdh  (ea),  {tigon  f) ;         tigcn,  accuse. 

(Jieo,  §  206) 
grow. 
(  (preo,  ^  206) 
-'     *  (  cover. 


pihe,  pihst,  Jiikd; 


pdh  (J)dg,Jjii:Ji), ;  ,    I 


prihe,  prihst,  prihd;  prdh,  prigon ; 

Add  spine,  swoon  ;  smpe,  snow  ;  prife,  thrive  1  scne,  shriek. 

206.  Third  Conjug'ation,  ^  u. 

Ablaut  (mCw);  ed,u;  u)^{f:6{u);  ed,u;  o) ;  Jw>io>eo,  m>o,  a-um- 
laut  (^§  32  ;  38,2) ;  ea>e,  shifting  (^  41) ;  eo>y,  M>y,  i-umlaut  {^  32). 
Ormulum  ablaut  (e,  (m)  ;  &,  u;  o),  Old  English  (e,  (w);  e,  o  or  e;  o),  En- 
glish (ee,  ta,  oo,  u;  ee,  e,  o,  b;  o,  o,  ee,  e).  The  imperfect  becoming  like 
the  present  by  the  shifting  of  e6]>e  and  ed^e,  is  distinguished  anew  by 
conforming  with  the  o  of  the  participle,  by  shortening  its  vowel  (e,  o),  or  by 
taking  a  weak  ending :  seethe;  seeth-ed,sud;  seeth-ed,  sodden;  cleave;  clove, 
clef-t ;  cloven,  clef -t ;  choose;  chose;  chosen;  sup,^ve^.\i,     ^i^  25,  200. 

Variation  of  consonants,  §  194. 

creope,  cryp(e)st  led),  cri/ple)d  "» 

{e6){p)V  ;      ^'•^«^'^™/'^"' 

dreope,  drypst,  drypd  (p) ;  dredp,  drupon ; 

geope,  gypst,  gypd  (P) ;  gedp,  gupon ; 

slupe,  slyp{e)st  (u),  slyp{e)d  {u)  (p) ;  sledp,  slupon  ; 


creep. 


supe,  sypst,  sypd  (p) ; 
clebfe,  clyfst,  clyfd; 
dufe,  dyfst,  dyfd; 
scufe,  scyfst,  scyfd  (ft) ; 

hreofe, , ; 

Icofe,  lyfst,  lyfd; 
rebfe,  ryfst,  ryfd; 
hreope,  brypst,  brypd; 
ceope,  cypst,  cypd; 
hreope,  hrypst,  hrypd ; 
preope,  prypst,  prypd; 


seap,  supon ; 
deaf  cliifon ; 
deaf,  dufon ; 
scedf  scufon ; 


ledf,  lufon ; 
redf,  rufon ; 
Iredp,  hrupon ; 
cedp,  ctipon ; 
hredp,  hrupon ; 
Jjredp,  prupcn ; 
breote,  bryt{e)st  (eo),  bryt  {ed)  (eo) ;  bredt,  bruton ; 


fleote,  flytst,  flyt ; 
geote,  gytst,  gyt ; 
greote,  gryt{e)st,  gryt ; 
hleole,  hleotest  {hlijtst),  hlyt; 
hrute,  hrylst,  hryt ; 
lute,  lytst,  luted  (Jyt) ; 
neote  (to),  nytst,  neoted  (nyt) ; 
reote,  rytst,  reot'ed  {ryt) ; 
sceote,  scytst,  sccotcd  (scyt) ; 
spreote,  sprytst,  spryt ; 


fleut,  fluton ; 
gcdt  (e),  guton ; 
gredt,  gruton ; 
Meat,  hluton ; 
hredt,  hruton ; 
ledt,  luton ; 
neat,  nuton ; 
redt,  ruton ; 
scedt  (e),  scuton ; 
sprcdl,  spruton  ; 


cropen, 

dropen, 
gopen, 
slopen, 
sopen, 
clofen, 
dofen, 
scofen, 
be-hrofen,  ("?) 
lofen,  love. 
rofen, 
bropen, 
copen, 
hropen, 
Jjropen, 
broten, 
fioten, 
goten, 
gruten, 
hloten, 
hroten, 
lotcn, 
noten, 
roten, 
scoten, 
sproten, 


drop. 

take  up. 

dissolve. 

sup. 

cleave. 

dive. 

shove. 


reave. 

brew. 

chew. 

rue. 

throe. 

break. 

float. 

pour. 

greet. 

cast  lots. 

rustle,  snore. 

lout. 

enjoy. 

weep,  cry. 

shoot. 

sprout. 


106 


Tllirj)  CONJUGATION.— VARIATION. 


Indicative  Present.  iMPKitFECT 

1st.  2d.        3(1.  Sing.      1>i.uu. 

pcote,  pytst,  pjjt ;  peat,  puton ; 

d-preolc,  -prj/tst,  -preoted  {-pryt)  ;  -prccit,  -prulon  ; 


Part.  Past. 

poten,  howl. 

-protcn,  irks,  loathe. 

boden,  bid. 


ded  {byt) ; 

encode,  cny{t)st,  cnyt ;  cnedd,  cnudon ; 

creode  {u),  cry(t)st,  crydcd  cryt;  cread,  crudon  ; 

Icode  {iu),  ly{t)st,  lyt ;  lead,  ludon ; 

rcudc,  ry{t)st,  ryt ;  redd,  rudon ; 

strude,  stry{t)st,  strudcd  (slryt) ;  stredd,  strudon ;      stroden,  despoil 

d-breode,-bre6dest  (-bri/st),  -brco-')     ,     ^.     ,      ^  ,      ^ 

t  t  (  1    '  t\-  I  "^''^^'"'  -brudon ;      -broden,  worsen 

d-hude,  -hyst,  -hyd;  -head,  -hiidon ;.       -Jioden,  spoil. 

hreodc,  hryst,  hryd;  hredd{d),hrudon;  hroden,  adorn. 

seode,  seodest  (syst),  seoded  (syd) ;  sedd,  sudon ;  soden,  seethe. 

ceose,  ceoscst  {cyst)',  ceased  {cyst) ;  ceds  {c),  curon ; 


cnoden,  knot. 

croden,  crowd. 

lodeyi,  grow. 

roden,  redden. 


dreose,  drijst,  dreosed  {dryst) ;  dreds,  druron  ; 


coren,      choose. 
droren,  \       ^ 


freds,  fruron ; 
-greds,  -gruron; 
hreds,  hruron ; 
-leds,  -luron ; 


(mourn. 
froren,    freeze. 
-groren,  frighten. 
hroren,    rush. 
-loren,     lose. 


bredc,  brucon  ;         brocen,     brook, use. 


ledc,  lucon ; 
rede,  rucon ; 
smede,  smucon ; 
sedc,  sueon ; 


locen,  lock. 

rocen,  reek. 

smocen,  smoke. 

socen,  suck. 


igon ;     bogen,      bow. 


freose,  fryst,  fryst ; 
be-greSse,  -gryst,  -gryst ; 
hreose,  hryst,  hryst; 
for-leose,  -lyst,  -lyst ; 
bruce,  brucest  {brycst),  braced  > 
^  {brycd  {p));  i 

luce,  lycst,  lycd  {p) ; 
reoce,  rycst,  rycd  {p) ; 
smeoce,  smycst,  smycd  {p) ; 
Slice,  sycst,  sycd  {p)  {c<Cg) ; 
b{ige  (eo),  bugest  {byhst  {g)),  bu-l       .    ,. 
ged{byhd{g));       ^  ^  ^  beahi,,),  bu^ 

dreoge,  dreogest  {dryhst),  dreo-)    ,     -i,  /   \    ,  ,  «. 

ged{dryhd);  '^  dreah{g),drugon;  drogen,    suffer. 

Jle6ge,Jle6gest{yhst),fleogcd{yhd);  fledh  {eg),  Jlugon;  fiogen,     fly. 

leoge,  lyhst,  lyhd;  ledh{e){g),lugon;  logen,      lie. 

smuge,  smyhst,  smyhd;  smedh,  smiigon ;      smogen,  creep. 

Jleuhe  {fleo),fifjhst,  flyhd;    plur.  )  ^  ^,    ^  „ 

fleod;  ^fleah,  Jlugon;         flogen, 

teohe  {teo),  tyhst,  tyhd{id);  plur. 
teod; 

peo,  pyhst,  pijhd ; 
preu,  pryst,  pryhd; 


flee. 


[•  tedh  {e)  {g),  tugon  ;  togen,      tug. 


])cdh,  Jmgon ; 
prcdh,  prugon ; 


Pogen, 


j{<pihe,205) 
(thrive. 


U<pAh€,2Q5) 
progen,  ■{     ' 

(cover. 


Add  *eo,  strain  ;  teo,  accuse,  §  205,  Heyne ;  fneose,  sneeze  1 


FOURTH  CONJUGATION.— VARIATION.  107 

207.  FouiiTu  Conjugation,  -y/a.  or  a. 

Ablaut  {a;  0,  6;  a);  a^x,  shifting;  a>e,  i-umlaut,  infrequent  (^  32). 
English  ablaut  {a;  o  or  uo ;  d)  =  {e;  6  or  u;  e);  a>e,  progression  and 
i-uralaut  {^^  38,  32);  o^u,  progression  (^  38):  wake,  woke,  ivdken;  take, 
took,  taken.     Variation  of  consonants,  §  194. 

ale,  ssl{e)st  {e,  a),  wl{e)d  {e,  a) ;  61,  olon  ;  alen,  shine. 
gale,  ga}l(e)st,  gsBl{e)d;  gol,  gulon ;  galen,  sing. 
fare,  fa:r{e)st,  fxr{e)it;  for,  for  on;  faren,  fare. 
stape,  sts;p{e)st,  stisp{e)(t{J));  stop,  stopon ;  stapen,  step. 
;  ;  ge-dafen,  behoove. 

grafe,  grssf{e)st,  grxf{c)d;  grofgrofon;  {H^^^^ln,   }  g'^a^e, dig. 

rafe,  rxf{e)st,  rsif{e)d;  rof,  rofon ;  rafen,  rob. 

Made,  hladest  (hlest),   hladed  ^  7  7/\/'j7  7/\-'i  n    i     /  \  ^     j 

,,  '.,  ^         '  y  hl{e)od,  hl{e)odon ;    nladen{se), \o^a. 

pade,padest  {j>xst),paded  {pxd);  pod,  podon ; 

ace,  xc{e)st,  xc{e)d  (p)  ;  oc,  ocon ; 

l)ace,bxc{e)st{e),bxced{e), ^191;  hoc,  hocon; 

sace,  sxc{e)st,  sxc{e)d  (p)  ;  soc,  socon ; 

tace,  txc(e)st,  txc(e)d  (p) ;  toe,  tocon ; 

pace,  pxc{e)st,  pxc{e)d  {]>)  ;  poc,  pocon  ; 

pasce,  pxsc{e)st,  pxsc{e)d  (p) ;     pose  (x),  poscon  (x) ;  pxscen, 

drage,^drxg{e)st  [hst),  drxg{e)d)^  ^^.^  ^^^^  ^^.^^^ 

gnage,   gnxg{e)st  (list),   gnx- -)        ^, 

g{e)dthd),  \gnoh,snoson; 

Add  pape,  thaw. 
{b.)  sc-breaking,  §  33 ;  A-breaking,  §  33  ;  ca  >y,  §  32. 

sc(e)ade,sc{e)adest{scxst),sc{e)a-")      /  \^,      /  \^,  ,  \    ^.  ^, 

\  ,,       \J  y  sc(c)od,sc(e)odon;  sc(e)aden,        scatlie. 

ded  (scxd) ;  ^       \  /     '      \  /  ,       \  /         i 

sc(e)ace,sc(e)accst(scxst),sc{e)a.)       ,.^         ,,^  ,,  /\ii 

.  ,        ,^  c  sc(e)oc,  sc(e)ocon  ;  scleiacen  (x),  shake. 

ced  {scxd);  )      v  /     '      \  /  v  '  \  " 

sceppe{y),  scyp{pe)st,  scyp{pe)d;  sc(e)6p,  sc{e)6pon;  sc{c)apen{e),  create. 

scafe  (eaf),  scxf{c)st,  scxf{e)d;     sc6f{eo?),sc6fon;  scafen,  shave. 

lcahe{led),  lehst{y),  Ichd  {ij)  \     '    I6h{g),  logon;         leahen{lcdn),\Adime. 

sleahe  {sled),  slehst  (y),  slchd  {y) ;   sloh  {g),  slogon  ;      slagen  {x,  e),  slay. 

Pped,  ppehst  {y),  ppehd  (y) ;  ppoh,  ppogon  ;         Ppegen,  wash. 

peaxe,  pexest,  peaxcd,  pex{e)d;      p{e)6x,  p{c)6xon;    pcaxen,  wax. 

AddjZea,  flay. 

(c.)  w-assimilation,  a  >  o,  §  35. 

spane,  span{e)st,  span{e)d{x)\      sp{e)6n,  sp{c)6non ;      spancn{o),     allure. 
stande  {o),  standest  {stentst),}     ,.,,.,      ,<:  c,t.\  .      ,  ,      , 

standcd  {stent  (y)) ;  }  ^'"'^'  ''"^''^  ^^  ^16).       standen,         stand. 


paden, 

wade,  go, 

acen, 

ache. 

hacen. 

bake. 

sacen, 

fight. 

tacen. 

take. 

pacen. 

wake. 

pxscen. 

wash. 

dragen. 

drag. 

gnagen, 

gnaw. 

108  FIFTH  CONJUGATION.— VARIATION. 

(d.)  Stems  in  -ia,  §  19G.    Imperative  in  -e:  spere,  stepe,  hefe. 

Indicativb  Pkesent.  Impeefkct 

1st.  2d.  od.  SiNQ.      Pluk.    Part.  Past. 

sper-ie{-{i)ge),  sperest,  spered;  sp6r,spdron;  sporen,  swear. 

sceppe<iscqfie,  §  207,  b;   snjppe<^sceafie,  ^  32. 

steppe  {<^stapic),  step{e)st,  step{e)it{p);  stop,  stopon ;  stapen,  step. 

h€bbe{:r){<hajie),hcf{e)st,  hcf{c)d;        hof,hdfon;     hafen{x),       heave. 
hlchhc  {<hlaMc)  {i,  y,  ea),  hlchst  0,  y),)  ^^^^^  ^^.        .  ^^^^;^^^„  ^^^  j       j^^ 
hlehd  {i,y)\  > 

Add  sccdde,  shed. 
208.  Fifth  Conjugation. — Contract.  Imperfect  in  eo,  e  {16). 

(L)  Root  in  a  +  two  consonants;  « > ea,  1-breaking  (§  33).  Um- 
laut y<ea  or  e<a  (§  32).  English  co>e,  shifting  (§  41); 
aid  y  did,  progression  (§  38):  fall,  fell,  fallen ;  hold,  held, 
holden. 

fealle,Jeal{le)st  (fylst),  fcal{le)d  |  ^^  .^^^^^  ^^ .^^^^  .  ^^._^^„^;^„^  f^ij_ 

pealle, peallest  (pylst),peal{l)ed  {pyld)  ;  peol(l),pe6llon ;  peallen,    well. 
pealte,pealtest  {pylst),pealted{pyli)  ;      peolt,peolton  ;    pealten,   fall. 
fealde    fealdest   (fylst),  ^«^^"^  | /,^^^,  j, j/^,„  .   /,«;^,„,      fold. 

/K.)«Z^^,  AeaZrfe.i  (AyZ.O,  /^eaZ^c^i  ^^^.^^^  ^^.^^^^  .   ^^^^^^^^      j^^^^^ 

stcalde,  stealdcst  (stylsl),  stealded}        ^,,        ^,,  ,, 

.       '  .  \    ./      /'  L  stcoLd.steoLdon;  stealden,     possess. 

{sty Id) ;  ) 

pie)aldc,  pcaldcst  (pylst),  pcaldcd}       ^,,       ^,,  ,, 

/    j\  >  peold,  peoldon;  pealden,      govern. 

pealce,   pealc(e)st  (pylcst),  peal-}       ^,         ^,  ,  ,, 

/  vv  /      7   V  /  ,\\  >  pculc,  peotcon;    pealcen,      walk. 

(b.)  n-assimilation,  a  >.o  (§  35). 

banne,    hanine)st  (benst),   ''    j, -^  /  \  /  "n    ?  ^i  /  --x      r  ,  \       j 

/     N  ^ /r   ^s  r  benyn)  {.eo),  bennoyiieo)  ;    oannen io),  oxaex. 

ban{ne)d  {bend)  ;  > 

sparine,  span{ne)st  {spenst),')        ^  /  \  /  ^\        ^  /  "s 

span{ne)d  {spend]  ;  I  '^"'^''^  ^'"^^  'P'"'''''  ^'"^  '    ^^'^""'"'  'P=^"- 

blande  {o),  blandest  {hlcn{t)d),')   ,,^    ,/  ^\   ,,-.    ,     /  /.\     77      ,     /  \  ,  1     j 
77      7   i/77     .\  r  blend  {co),blcndon{eo);  olanden{o),  hiem. 

blanded  {blent) ;  > 

fo  (<Cfahe),  fe{h)st  {&),  fc{h)d}    ^-.       /     s     /.-  r  t  \\ 

{^,W.f6d)        \'  -"^    \  fcng  {cg),fengon;  fangen  (o),|  ^^^^^_ 

infin./o/i;  imperat. /6(A),/o<?.  ) 

,-a  (<5-a-g«-m»,  ^210),^^.^^^  plur.  >  ^.^     ^.^^    .        ^^^    . 

gad;  iia^exaX.  ga,  gad ;   mhn.gan;       > 
gauge  {o){cs:),   gangest  (o),  )       ^      ..^     ^  ^  x  ,  ^ 

ganged {0),  ^Iga^gadlo) ;  |  ^^"^  (^^'  ^'''  ^^>'  -'''^'    ^'^"^^^  ('')'  ^g«- 
infin.  gangan  (0)  ;   imperat.  ^a??^-  (fi)  ;   p.  pr.  gangende  {0)  (geon- 

gan,  ^  201  ;  gengan,  weak). 


FIFTH  CONJUGATION.— VARIATION.  109 

ho  «hahe),  he{h)st  (&),  he{h)d{£),  |     .  . 

plur.  Aof?;  .     ■'    .  >hang. 

infin.  hon  {<Chdhan) ;  imperat.  ho{h),  hod.  ) 

(2.)  Root  in  a;  i-umlaut  ci'^m  (§  32).  English  dp  ^  die,  pro- 
gression and  labial  assimilation  (§§  38, 35) ;  eop  >  eio  =  iU,  shift- 
ing and  labial  assimilation  (§§  41,  35) :  bloio,  bleio,  hloton. 

spape,  spdp(e)st  (spxp(e)st),  spdp(e)d  )         ^  ^ 

isp^p(e)d  (/)) ;  ;  '^''P^  'P'^P""" '  "^^«^'"'  "^""P- 

ge-ndpe,-ndpest{-nsepst),-ndped{-nsepp)\  -neop, -neopon ;  -ndpen,  whelm. 

for-spdfe,  -spsefst,  -spsbf{e)d;  -spedf,  -speofon;  -spdfen,  drive. 

hldpe,    bldp{e)st   (bl£ep(e)st),    bldp{e)d ")  ,,  ^      ,,  ^  ,,^  ,, 

^.,    ,  /.\  x\  '     >  Y  \  /     I   j^g^p^  bleopon;  blapen,       blow. 

cndpe,  cndpest  {cnxpst),  cndped(cnsepd) ;  cneop,cneopon;  cndpen,  know. 

crape,  crdpe St  {crxpsi),  crdped  {crebpd);    creop,  creopon  ;  crdpen,  crow. 

mdpe,  mdpest  (meepst),  mdped  (md'pd) ;     meop,  meopon ;   mdpen,  mow. 

sdpe,  sdpest  {sscpsi),  sdped  {s&pd)  ;  sedp,seopon;      sdpen,  sow. 

prdpe,  l)rdpest{pr&pst),  l)rdped{pr&pd);  preop,  preopon;  prdpen,  throw. 

pdpe,  pdpest  {pa;p[e)si),  pdped  {p&p{e)d) ;  peop,  peopon ;   |^^^^^g\  ^  blow. 

bldte,bldtest{blMst),bldted{blebt);  blet{eo),bleton;  bldten,        pale. 

hdte,  hdtest  (Jisetst) ,  hdted  (Jixt)  \  I  he{h)t  (^   159,"»   ,  .  , 

/ja«e  («),  passive,  §  219.  <    b) ,  he{h)ton ;  y  ' 

hndte,  hndtest  {hn£etst),hndted{hn&t);    ■<      .       /'  >•  ^naie?z,      knock. 

sc(e)dde,  sc{e)ddest,  sc{e)dded;  \        v      .  r  *c(e)ac?en,  divide. 

C?)  ^^rarfe,  sira£?esi  (5^rje(050j  5<?'ac/ef?H5^/'C£Z(eo),5<?-e-|        ^,  ., 

(street) ;  5  (     6?ora ;  i  '  ' 

,.x       ^                                                            (sceon,  scionon}  ,  . 

(;)  5ca«e,  ,  ;      <      ,  A..  r >     shine. 

Idee,  ldc{e)st  (l&cst),  Idced  {li&cd  {p))  ;     "]  irn  n  /•"       .[  ^«cen,         leap. 

(3.)  Root  ea.     Syncopated  forms  not  found  in  poetry. 

hedfe,  hedfest  (hyfst),  hcdfcd  {hyfd)t;       heof,  heofon;      hedfcn,    weep. 
hledpe,  hledp{e)st  (y),  hledpcd  {hlypd  (p) ;  hleop,  hleopon ;  hledpen,  leap. 

d-hnedpe   -hnedp{c)st  {-hnypst),  -hned-X  .;,„,^      ;,„,^  ,„ .  .knedpen,  sever. 

p{e)d{-hnypd{p));  ) 

hedpe,  hedpest{hypst),  heaped  {hypd);    hcuj^,  hcupon ;  hcdpen,  hew. 

bedte,  bedtest  (bytst),  bedted  (byl)-;  beot,bcoLon;  beaten,  beat. 

bredte,  bredtest  (brytst),  bredted  (bryt) ;   brcut,  breoton ;  brcdten,  break. 

ge-scedte    -seedtest  (-scytst),  -^cedtcd  l^^^.^^  _^^^.^^^,  _^^^.^^^^  ^^jl  ^^ 

(-scyt) ;  ^  ) 

dedee,  dcd^{e)st  (dyhst),  dcasrU^d    )       ,  /-       ,  ^  j  "   ^^        ,i.,« 

/.-.    ^x/iA  r     deoi^,  dco3;on;     deas^en,      dye. 


110  SIXTH  CONJUGATION.— VARIATION. 

(4.)  Root  ffi>  English  ee,  shifting  (§  41). 

iNnicATivK  Present.  Impekfeot 

1st.  2d.  SJ.  SiNo.      Pluk.  Part.  Past. 

slwpe  {d,e),  sld'p{c)st,  slii'p{e)(t;  slcp,  slSpon  ;  slibpen,     sleep. 

gr&te,  gr:vt{c)st,  grii't{e(t) ;  gret,  grclon ;  grMen,    greet.. 

hutc,  ln:t{c)st,  ln:t{eu)  (c)  ;  -s.-     ..y     _  >  Lvten,       let. 

on-drivdc,  -dr&it)st,  -dnvdcd  )       ,-,/,/.  ,\      ,  ^  ,  ,  ,  ,        ,       , 

(  J  ..',,\ .  I   -drcurd  {-d7-cd), -di-cdon ;  -drseden,  dreM. 

nvd{c),  rd:d{c)st  {nv{t)st),  rx-  )  ^reord  (^  159,  b),  red  rxd\       ,  , 

ded  irM) ;  \  l(M.Gloss.),  redrdon  (?)  J '^'^^'"'      ''^""'<^'- 

(5.)  Root  e  >  English  te,  shifting  (§  41). 

{/irepe,  hrcp{e)st,  hrcp{c)d ;    hrcop,  hreopon ;    hrepen)f    cry. 
pipe,  pcp{e)st,  pcp{e)d ;         pcup,  peopon  ;       pepcn,        weep. 

(G.)  Root  6  ;  i-umlaut  <5  >  ^  (§  32).    English  eoj)  >  eio  (§  208,  2) : 
(/row,  greio,  groicn. 

}>rope,hropcst  {h-epsl),hroped{hrepd{p))\  hreup,  hreopon  ;  hropen,  cry. 
hpupe,hpopcst{hpepst),hpopcd{hpepd{p))  ;  hpeopjipeopon;  hpopen,  whoop. 
Mope,  blopest  {blepst),  blopcd  {hlcpd) ;  bleop,  bleopon ;     blopen,   blow. 

flope,  Jlopest  (Jicpst),  Jlupcd  (flcpd)  ;  fleop,  jleopon;     fiopen,    flow. 

grope,  gropes t  (grepsl),  groped  (grcpd) ;      grcop,  greopon ;  gropen,  grow. 
hlope,  hlopest  (hlepst),  Moped  (hlepd) ;  lileop^  hleopon ;    hlopen,  low. 

rope,  ropest  (repst),  roped  (repd) ;  reop,  reo{po)n ;    ropen,     row. 

spope,  spopest  (spcpst),  spoped{spepd) ;        spcop,  speopon ;  spopen,  speed. 

blote,  hlotest  (bletst),  blotcd  {hlel) ;  bleot,  bleolon  ;      bloten,  \    n 

{\)  prole,  protest  {pretst),  pr6tcd{prei);      preot,  preoton  ;    proten,    root. 

spoge,  spogest  (spehst),  spoged(spe/id);     i   ^     ^i>f^  J       r  spogen,  sough. 

209.  Sixth  Coxjugation.  —  Stem  in  -ia.     "Weak. 

No  ablaut.  Certain  verbs,  having  their  -ia  syncopated  in  the  imperfect 
and  past  participle,  drop  their  umlaut  in  those  forms.  The  imperative  sin- 
gular of  these  verbs  has  umlaut  without  gemination,  and  the  ending  -e 
(^  188,  b).  The  imperfect  singular  second  person  is  often  found  in  -es 
(^  16G,  a). 

■y/a. 

(a.)  Theme  in  cg<^gi,  compensative  gemination  (^  188,  b).  Order  of 
vowels,  (e ;  a;,  t-B ;  s)  ;  a  >e,  i-umlaut  (^  32);  a  >cr,  shifting  (^  41) ;  »^> 
IB,  eg>c,  §37,2. 

lecge,  leg{e)st  (hst),  leg{e)d{hd),  ]  Lrgde  {e),\hrgdon  (e),)  ge-Lvgd  {e),\ 
\)]nr.  lecgad ;  Uede,         Uedon ;         ^  geled,  J^' 


SIXTH  CONJUGATION.— VARIATION.  m 

secge  (<7'),  scg{c)st  (cv)  {eg),  seg{e)(t  \  swgde  (e),}  sxgdon  (e),">  swgd,'\ 


(a?)  {eg),  plur.  secg{e)ad{w).     Im-  \  s&de, 
perat. sege {x),  plur.  secg{e)ad{at). 
For  sagdst,  sagdd,  saga,  see  sa- ' 
sian. 


s&don ; 


,\  swgd,\ 
)  s&d,  ) 


say. 


{b.)  Theme  in  cc<Cci,  IK^li,  compensative  gemination  (^  188,3).  Or- 
der of  vowels,  {e;  ea,ea;  ea);  a>e,  i-umlaut  {^  32);  a'^ea,  A-^-breaking 
(^  33);  cdy>ht,  ^  189, c.  English  vowels,  {e;  o;  5);  ea>a  (Ormulum)> 
6,  progression  {^  38)  :  sell,  sold,  sold. 

cpclle,  epel{e)st,  cpel{e)d;        cpeal-de,  -don ;  -.  ^         '     >  kill. 

dpelle,  dpel{e)st,  dpel{e)d ;       dpeal-de,  -don  {dpelede)  'AJj/    [  err. 

felle  {y<ea,  ^  32),fel{e)st,l  >  . 

fel{e)d,fyllest,  fyllcd;     i  ^'"'^  ^^'    '''"'  ^-^^^''"^ ' 


5e//e  {y  =  i<lea,  &  32),  5e-)     /  x   ,   ,       , 
7    w      x       7   ♦  /      \         >  s{e)al-de, -don ; 
lest  (y,t),  seled{y,i);       ) 

a-stelle,  -stelest,  -stel{l)ed ;     -steal-de,  -don  ; 


Sfeald,  \  .,, 

ifylled,  i  **'^'- 

seald,  (sell)  give. 

-steald,       station. 

Ueald,  l^tell) 


(shake. 
drr{n)ht,     vex. 
h:ohl{r),     leak, wet. 


rcaht, 
strcaht, 


rule, 
stretch. 


telle,  tele  St,  teled;  teal-de, -don  Uelede):     -)  ,  ,    7/  \fP 

^  ^        (telcd{w),)  icouut. 

cpecce,cpec{e)st,cpec{e)d{p);  {l)cpeah-te,-ton{cpehte);  {!) cpeaht,]^^^^^^ 

drecce,  drec{e)st,  drec{e)d}    ,    /  X7  , 

(^);plur.rfr.cc(.)arf,-       \  dre{a)h-te, -ton; 

Iccce,  lec{e)st,  lec{e)d  {p) ;        leoh-te,  -ton  {ca  ?  e) ; 

recce,  rec{c){e)st,  rcc{c)d{p) ;  rcah-te,  -ton  {a,  x,  c) ; 

slrecce,  s(rec(e)st,  strec{c)d  >     ,     ,  x ,   , 

,,.  \  /    '  I  strc{a)h-te,  -ton; 

pecce, P)ec{e)st,  Jjec{e)d{Jj) ;    J)e{a)h-te, -ton;  pcaht,         thatch. 

pecce,pec{e)st,pec{c)(e)d(p);  pe{a)h-te,  -ton;  pe{a)ht,      wake. 

precce,prec{e)st,prec{e)d{]j);  preh-te,-ton  {ea?)  pre{a)ht,     wake. 

(c.)  Theme  in  a  nasal  {nc,ng).  Order  of  vowels,  {e ;  0,0;  0);  a>e, 
i-umlaut  (^  32) ;  a >o,  nasal  assimilation  ('^35).  English  order,  {i;  ou;  ou); 
I  comes  from  bringan  {^  201),  pincan  (^  211);  o'^ou  =  du,  progression 
(^  38)  :  bring,  brought,  brought. 

brenge,  breng{c)st,  breng{e)d{cp);     broh-tc, -ton  ;     hroht,   bring. 
Pence,   pene{e)st    penc{e)d{p),}  _^^^  ^^.^^^^ 

lAai.penc{e)ad;  )     ■'  »      ^       ' 

210.— -v/ 6. 

Theme  in  c;  cd^ht  (^  189,  r).  Order  of  vowels,  {e;  6,6;  6);  o>e, 
i-umlaut  (^  32).  English  order,  {ee ;  ou;  ou);  ou^=au,  progression  (^38): 
seek,  sought,  sought. 

rece,  recst,  recd{p),  recced;        roh-tc,  -ton;         roht,       reck. 


112 


IRREGULAR  VERBS.— VARIATION. 


Indicative  Pkesknt.  Impeefect 

1st.         2u.  Sd.  Sing.      Pluu.    Tart.  Past. 

sece,  sccest,  sccat,  plur.  sec(€)a(t,^    suh-tc,  -ton;      soht,    seek. 
subj.  plur.  sec{c)an  {&,c6),  part.  [- 
pros.  sec{c)cndc.  * 

211.  — ^U. 

Theme  in  a  guttural  {g,c);  cgd'^ht,  ncd'yht  (^  194,  a).  Order  of 
vowels,  ((m)  »/(?■);  0,  o;  o);  M>y,  i-umlaut  (^  32);  y>i,  shifting  or  bad 
spelling  {^  41);  M>Goth.  au^o,  A-r-breaking  (^  33).  English  order, 
(y;  ou;  oil);  y  {i)'^ij  =  di,  o'^ou  =  du,  progression  (^38):  buy,  bought, 
bought. 

bycgeCi)  (<Cbugie,^  188,  b),  bygest,}  ,   ,  ,  ,   , 

byged;  '  \  boh-te, -ion;        bokt,  buy. 

hycge  (i),  hygest,  hygcd,  plur.  hyc-\   ,        ,       ,  ,/>,/%., 

V(e)a//,-    -^^      '    -^^     '  ^  ^    \hog-de,.don;       ge-hugod  (o) ,  mmd. 

{hoh-te  is  not  found.     Conformation  with  the  common  weak  forms  led 
to  hogde^hog-ede,  -cide,  -ude,  and  finally  to  a  present  hogie.) 

hynceli),  hync(e)stli),  h\inc{e)d{i)}   ,    ,  ,      ,  ,    , 

(^),  plur.yc(V/;  '    \P^h.te,.ton;        ge-puht,  seem. 

pyrce  {eo,i,  e),  pyrc{e)st  {e),  pyrc-\        ,  \,  .      ^  ,,  , 

ie)ct{r),  plur.  pyrcie)ad;  \  P'<'^)h.tc,  -ton ;  ge-porht,         work. 


212.   IRREGULAR  VERBS. 

I.  Pr^teritive  Presents. — The  completion  of  certain  acts  is  the  be- 
ginning of  states ;  perfects  of  verbs  denoting  such  acts  get  to  be  used  as 
presents  denoting  the  states:  Sansk.  ve'da,  Greek  ^di£a,  Ang.-Sax.  pat,  I 
have  seen  >  /  know.  About  a  dozen  such  verbs  are  common  to  the  Teu- 
tonic tongues.  They  retain  antiquated  personal  endings  and  other  forms, 
have  peculiar  syntactical  relations,  and  the  original  notion  of  their  verb  has 
often  given  place  to  a  varying  modal  force,  in  which  case  they  become  aux- 
iliary verbs.  The  old  presents  are  obsolete.  New  weak  imperfects  are 
formed. 

■\/vid,  see.    Parent  Speech,  perfect  vi-vaid-{m)a,  plur.  vi-vid-masi  (^  166). 


Sanskrit. 

Greek. 

Latin. 

Gothic. 

0.  Saxon. 

Aug. -Sax. 

O.  Norse. 

ve'd-a 

foT^-a 

vid-i 

vait 

wet 

pat 

veit 

ve't-tha 

^oXa-Qa 

vid-is-ti 

vais-< 

vres-t 

pds-t 

veiz-< 

ve'd-a 

pol^-t 

vid-i-t 

vait 

wet 

pat 

veit 

vid-ma 

fia-fitv 

vid-i-mus 

vit-M-m 

■wit-u-n 

jnt-o-n 

vit-M-m 

vid-a 

pt'(T-r£ 

vid-is-tis 

vit-u-J) 

Vfit-u-n 

pit-o-n 

\it-u-d 

vid-us 

ftff-dcri 

vid-er-unt 

xit-u-n 

Vfit-u-n 

pit-o-n 

vit-M 

O.H.German  has  weiz,  iveiz-t,  ivciz,  plur.  loiz-a-mes,  wiz-u-t,  wiz-u-n. 
The  other  forms  use  the  vowel  of  ablaut  which  appears  in  the  plural  of  the 


IRREGULAR  VERBS.  113 

new  present.  It  may  be  varied  by  umlaut,  or  other  assimilation.  The  per- 
sonal endings  have  all  the  variation  mentioned  in  ^i^  165, 166, 170  :  mag-urn, 
-un,  -on,  -en,  -c,  -an ;  meahtes.  In  canst,  gemanst,  dhst,  -t  is  strengthened 
to  -St  (^§  50  ;  40, 1).  The  grammars  give  unne,  cunne,  durre,  purfe,  age, 
duge  as  regular  indie,  pres.  sing.  2d ;  but  their  examples  are  subjunctive. 

First  Conjugation.  —  V^J 

megan,  beneohan,  innan,  cinnan,  ge-minan,  scelan,  deorran<^deorsan  (Goth,  dair- 
san),  peorfan,  not  found. 
Indicative  Sing. 
_  1st  &  3d.        2d.  rUir.  Subjunctive.    Imperat.         Infin.  Part. 

,,^,^jgg'2QQ;"jwia?^,mea/i-<(0;  mdgon  {x)  {u) ;  m&g-e,-en;  ■ ;  mag-an{u);  ; 

Imperf. meah-te{i),meah-ton(t);  -te,-ten;  am  strong,  (may),  <have  grown. 

Pres.  (^199).  he-neah, ;     be-nitgon  ;  benug-e,-en; ;   benugan? ;   ; 

Imperf. be-noh-te,  -ton  (^211);  -te,  -ten;  hold  anduse<have  come  to. 

Pres.  (^201).  G??(o), ,•         unnon  ;  unne, -en;     ;  unn-an;  (ge)unn-en; 

Imperf. u-de,-don(Goth.piiiegulaT),^31;    -de, -den;  favor<have  given. 

Pres.  (^201).  can  (o),  canst  (o);  cunnon  ;  cunne, -en;    ;  cunn-an;      ; 

Imperf. cii-de, -don  {Goth,  tunpa),^  37;   -de, -den;  know<have  got.         cude. 

Pres.  (^201).  ge-man{o),  -manst ;  -munon;      -e,-en;  gemun,-ad;  gemun-an;  ; 

Imperf. ge-miinde,  -don;  -de, -den;  remembcr<have  called  to  miud, 

C  scul-e   en  ^ 

Pres.  ("^203).  scie^alisceT),  sc(e)alt;  scul-on{eo);  <    ,         ^  \.\   '  ^culan;         ; 

(.  (CO,  y,i)',  ) 

Imperf. sc{c)ol-de  (lo),  -don ;  -de,  -den;  8liall<ougM<have  got  m  debt. 

Pres.  (^204).  d{c)ar,  d{e)arst ;  durr-on;  -e,-en{y);    ;  durran;        ; 

Imperf. dors-te,  -ton  (Goth,  daurs-ta) ;  -tc,  -ten;    dare<have  fought. 

Pres.  ('^  201).  p{c)arf,  p{e)arf-t ;  Jmrf-on  ;  purf.e,.en(j/);  ;  purf-an ;       ; 

Imperf. porf-te,  -ton;  -te,-ten;  need<  have  worked  (opus  est). 

Second  Conjugation  (^  205).  —  -y/ii  tgan,r[o\,ioviX\^,pitan,^2Q!j. 

Pres....  dh,ahst;  agon;  ag-e,-en;     ;  dgan, -ne ;    dgende ; 

Imperf..  dh-tc,  -ton;  -tc,  -ten;         own<have  earned  or  taken. 

ndh  =  {ne-{-dh),  &c.,  not  own. 

Pres.  ...  pdt,  pdst{x);        piton;  pit-c,-en;  pit-e,-ad;  pitan(ij)-nc;  piten,-de; 

Cpis-se,-son,^       ^^  _^^ 
Imperf..  /'!5-<e(y), -<on,-  -{^^36,3;  35, >  ]       '       '       [  know<have  seen. 

IB, pestan;   j 

Vres.  ...  ndt{=ne-\-pdt),nyton{c);  nyt-e,-en;    ;  nitan{ij);      nyten,-de ; 

Imperf..  nyste,  nysse ;        nyston  {Sic);  not  know. 

Third  Conjugation  (^  206).  —  Vu;  dugan  not  found. 

Pres....  dedh{g), ;  dugon;  dug-c,-cn;   ;  dugan;         dugende  ; 

Imperf..  doh-tc,  -ton  (^  211) ;  -te,  -ten  ;        is  fit<has  grown. 

II 


ll-i  IRREGULAR  VERB?,. 

Fourth  Conjlt.ation  (^  207).  —  V  a  ;   viatan  not  found. 

Indicative  Sing. 

1st  &  3d.  2d.                I'lur.                          i'libj.                 Inn).  I"''">-  '"'"'t^- 

Pros....  mot,  most;      moton;  mot-e,-cn;     ;     molan;    — ■ — 


Impcrf..  OTos-ic, -<o?i  (^  3G,  3)  ;  -tc,-icn;  is  mcet<^lias  met. 

Grimm  takes  hco,  be,  for  a  prateritive  present  from  a  huan,  to  dwell,  of 
the  Fifth  Conjugation. 

From  an  imperfect  subjunctive  of  the  Second  Conjugation  (Goth.  viljau<^ 
■\/  vil,  inflected  like  ncvijau,  ^  171)  arise 

Vres.  ...  pillc,  pilt ;       piUad{y)\     pill-e,-cn;     -c,-ad;    pill-an;     -ende; 
Imperf..  pol-de,  -don  (Goth,  vilda) ;  -de,  -den ;       will<^havc  wished. 

Pres.  ...  ncUc,  licit;      nellad{y.i)\  -c, -en;  -c,-ad;     -an;  -ende; 

Imperf..  nol-de,  -don,  &c.  ne-{-piUe,wi][  not. 

pi'^po,  assimilation  (^  35,  2,  a) ;  2>c,  a-umlaut ;  pi^ij,  ^^  32,23  ;  //>/. 

213. — TI.  Verbs  without  Connecting  A'owel  (Relics  of  Sanskrit  2d 
Class,  ^  158) : 

(1.)  The  common  forms  of  t!ic  substantive  verb  are  from  three  roots: 
-y/  as,  ■\/  him,  -y/  vas. 

\(i-)       Sanskrit.         Greek.  Latin.  Gothic.       O.Saxon.  Aiislo-Saxon.  O.Norse. 

Stem,      at-,  s  eo-  es,  s  is,  s         is,  s  is,  ir,  s ;         ar  er 

Sing.— 1.  as-mi  «i-/i«>ti7-jut  *s-u-m  i-m<is-in  eo-m  ea-m  e-m<er-m 

2.  4s-(s)i  tcr-ai,  £t  es-  is-  car-t  er-t 

3.  as-ti  ea-zi  C3-t  is-t  is-t  is-  ■ er- 

Plue.— 1.  *s-mas  ta-^tv  *s-u-mu3 ■         *s-in(l         *s-ind(oTi)  ear-on  er-u-m 

2.  *s-thii    ea-re  es-tis         • *s-ind         *s-iud(on)  ear-on  er-u--5 

3.  *s-auti  £'-u<ri,  e-l<ji    *s-uut       *tf-ind  ''s-iud(UD)  *s-ind(on)  ear-on  er-u 

As'^s,  compensation,  gravitation  {^^  37,38);  as'^is,  precession  (^  38); 
ys<iis,  bad  spelling  ;  5>r,  shifting  (^  41,  3,  b) ;  irm^  (eorm)'^ eom,  ann^ 
{ear7n)  cam,  breaking  {^  33);  second  person  -5  and  -t  (§  165);  nf^nd, 
shifting  (^  19),  nt  is  often  found.  Scond-on,  -iin  {ie,  y),  u-umlaut?  (^  32) ; 
-on  in  earon  (O.  Norse  er-u-m)  (^  ICG,  a) ;  in  sind-on,  a  double  plural  throu"]! 
conformation  (^  40) ;  aron,  earon,  are  rare  in  West  Saxon. 

The  subjunctive  (Sansk.  *s-jd-m,  Greek  t*-'ir]-v,  Lat.  *s-ie-m'^shn,  Goth. 
*s-ija-u,  O.  II.  Ger.,  O.  Sax.,  Ang.-Sax.  *s-i,  O.  Norse  *s-e)  is  inflected 
like  the  imperfect  given  in  ^  171.  Anglo-Saxon  has  also  sf^sig  (dissim- 
ilated  gemination,  ^  27)  '^ste,  seo  (a  peculiar  progression,  ^  25)  >sy  (bad 
spelling);  so  plur.  sin,  sjen,  scon,  syn.  The  subjunctive  often  has  the  force 
of  an  imperative,  and  is  given  as  the  imperative  in  ..S^lfric's  grammar. 

{b.)  -y/  bhu,  be.  Sansk.  bhav-dmi,  Greek  <pv-w,  Lat.  fu-i,  correspond  in 
form  to  Goth,  bau-an,  Ang.-Sax.  bu-an,  dwell.  From  the  same  root  are 
found  forms  without  a  connecting  vowel  in  Ang.-Sax.,  O.  Sax.,  O.  H.  Ger, 
In  O.  Sax.  are  only  biii-m,  bi-st;  in  O.  H.  Ger.  pi-m,  pi-s,  — ,  plur.  pi-rumes, 
pt-rut,  pi-run  (r<^5<-v/a5).  Ang.-Sax.  has  heo-{m)  (io),  bi-st  {y),  bi-d  (?/), 
plur.  bead  {io),  and  a  present  subjunctive,  imperative,  and  infinitive,  with  the 


IRREGULAR  VEKES. 


115 


Sing. 

—  Indicative. 

Subjunctive. 

Imperative. 

Infinitiv( 

ic 

eom,  he6{m) ; 

st,  beo,  pese ; 

Pu 

eart,  bist ; 

SI,  beo,  pese ; 

beo,  pes ; 

he 

ts,  bid; 

si,  beo,  pese ; 

beon, 

Plur. 

— 

or 

pi 

sind(on),  bcud; 

sin,  beon,  pesen ; 

pcsan 

S^ 

sind{on),.beod; 

sin,  beon,  pesen ; 

beod,  pesad; 

hi 

sind{on),  head; 

sin,  beon,  pesen ; 

common  endings ;  eo^y'^y'^i,  umlaut,  precession,  and  shifting  (§^  32, 38, 
41).     Sing.  3d  beod  occurs  (conformation). 

(c.)  •\/fa5>f25  (ablaut)  is  inflected  in  the  First  Conjugation,  §^  199, 197, 
but  the  present  indicative  forms  are  so  rare  that  they  are  not  given  in  the 
grammars. 

Paradigms  for  Practical  Use  (pp.  84,90,91). 
Present : 


pesende. 


Imperfect  : 
Sing.— 
ic  pxs ;  pstre  ; 

J)u  p&re  ;  pskre ; 

he  pais ;  pxrc ;  ge-pesen. 

Plur. — 
pe,  ge,  hi  p&ron ;        pwrcn  ; 

The  negative  ne  often  unites  with  forms  beginning  with  a  vowel  or  p: 
neom  =  ne  +  ^om ;  nis ;  nses  =  ne  -{-ps^s,  p.  p.  nxrende  <C  ne  pxrende,  etc. 

(2.)  -y/  dha,  place  :  Sansk.  da-dhd-mi,  Greek  ri-9T}-fii,  Goth.  — ,  O.  Sax. 
do-n,  O.  H.  Ger.  tuo-n,  do.  Anglo-Saxon  imperfect  from  reduplicated  theme 
dad;  a^ce  (ablaut,  ^  199)  '^y'^i,  irregular  weakening.     (^  168. 

Indicative  Sing.       Plur.  SuLj.  Imperat.       Infin.  Participle. 

Pres.  ..  do,  de-st,  di'-d;  do-d;  do,-n;       do,-d;     do-n;     do-nde. 

Imperf.  did-e{y),-cst,-e ;  -on{:r);     -e{x),n;  do-n,  de-n. 

(3.)  '[/ ga,  go  :  Sansk.  g'i-gd-mi,  Greek  j3l-(3r]-fit,  Goth,  gaggan,  O.  Sax. 
gd-n,  O.H.Ger.  gc-n.  Imperfect  from  -y/  i  (Sansk.  e'-mi,  Greek  tl-^i,  Lat. 
t-re,  go,  §  158,  a)>Goth.  i-ddja,  weak  form  strengthened. 

Fies.  ..  gd,  g&st,  gdi-d;  gad;         gd,-n;       gd,-d;    gd-n; 

Imperf.  eo-de,-dest,-de;  -donf^^^l);  ge-gd-n. 

From  the  same  root  are  the  nasalized  forms  gangan,  imperf.  gemg,  geng, 
gieng  (^  208,  b)  ;  geongan  (^  201) ;   and  gengan,  imperf.  gengdc. 

214.  Reduplicate  Presents  (Relics  of  Sanskrit  3d  Class,  ^  158): 
gangan  <i^/ gay  ga-gd-mi,  go  (^  213);  so  hangan,  standan,^  216). 


215.   Stems  in  -ia  of  strong  verbs  (Relics  of  Sanskrit  4th  Class,  ^158) 
fricge,  inquire,  etc.  (§  199) ;  sperie,  swear,  etc.  (^  207,  d). 


11(5  IRREGULAll  VERBS. 

'21G.   Stems  with  »  inserted  (Relics  of  Sanskrit  7th  Class,  ^  158): 
f6<ifdhe^  {fd{n)gan),  fcng,  etc.,  catch  (^  208,  h). 
ga{n)gan<,ga-ga,  go  (^  214). 

7to</ia/ie>(Aa(n)5'an),  A"?i^,  etc.,  hang  (^  208,  Z*). 
sta{n)dan,  stod,  etc.  (^  207,  c). 

hre{n)gan,  brohte,  bring;  jje{n)can,  pohle,  think  ;  py{n)can,  pulUc,  seem 
(^^209,  c;  211). 

217.  Stem  in  -^-{-na  (Relic  of  Sanskrit  9th  Class):  frignan,  ask 
(§  202),  shows  itself  of  this  formation  in  Gothic,  but  is  consolidated  in  An- 
glo-Saxon. 

218.  Relics  of  Reduplication  (i^*  159,  Z»)  :  hdlan,  ca\\,  hcht ;  Idcan, 
leap,  Zeo/c  ("^  208,  2)  ;  Iwtan,  let,  leort ;  ondrii'dan,  dread,  ondreord ;  r&dan, 
rede,  reord  (^  208,  4) ;  and  see  ^  214. 

219.  Relic  of  Passive  :  lidtan,  call,  is  called  {^  208,2) ;  passive  indie, 
pros.  sing.  1,  hdt-te  {&),  I  am  called ;  3,  hdt-te,  he  is  called.  Imperf.  sing. 
1,3,  hdt-te ;  plur.  hdt-ton.  //ai<e  =  Gothic  haltada:  -te,  Goth,  -da  {baira- 
da),  Greek  -rai  {(pipt-TuC),  Sansk.  -te  (J/i«ra-ie)<^ta-ti>  Parent  Speech  -tai 
{bhara-tai).  Compare  ^  163  :  ai'^a'^e,  precession,  ^  38  ;  i'^d,  shifting, 
^  19  ;  td^  tt,  assimilation,  §  35,  B. 

220.  Verbs  with  Mixed  Ablaut  :  drepan,  strike,  p.  p.  drepen  and 
dropen  (§  199)  ;  bregdan,  braid  (§  202) ;  ir^e/^-an,  swallow  (^  203) ;  sihan, 
seon,  strain  ;  tihan,  teon,  accuse  ;  Jnhan,  peon,  grow  ;  prihan,  preon,  cover 
(§^  205, 206) ;  but  these  eight  last  should  be  treated  as  separate  verbs. 

221.  Verbs  with  Mixed  Strong  and  Weak  Forms  :  jinde,  find,  im- 
perf./an«?  and  funde  (^  201);  Zi«a?i,  inhabit ;  imperf.  bu-de ;  ^.^.  gebu-n; 
biiian,  bugian,  biipian  are  other  variations  ;  cidan,  chide,  cad,  cidde. 

222.  Verbs  with  Mixed  Weak  Forms  in  -ia  and  6  {^^  160;  165,  d; 
183).  The  same  theme  often  has  forms  from  both  stems  ;  but  they  are  best 
given  under  different  verbs  : 

Theme  Z</ has  imperfects  lif-de  (<stem  hfia)  and  lifo-de  {y,  eo)  «stem 
lifo).  Hence  two  verbs,  liblan<^lifian  by  compensative  gemination  (^  188, 
b),  and  lifian  like  lufian  (^  183). 

With  libban  are  put  indie,  pres.  {Jibhc,  plur.  libbad,  not  in  Grein)  imperf. 
lifde,  lifdon. 

With  lifian,  pres.  lif(i)ge,  leofust,  lifCut  {eo,y),  plur.  lif-iad  (-igad,  -gad, 
-igead)  ;  imperative  leofd;  p.  p.  lificnde ;  imperf.  lifude  (y,  eo).  The  i  of 
ia  has  its  usual  variations  in  the  infinitive  and  participle  (ig,  ige,  ge,  g), 
^  175  ;  i'^eo,  a-umlaut,  ^  32. 

Hahban  (a?),  have,  <Chqfian,  has,  besides  full  forms  from  -ia,  indie,  sing.  1 
haf-a,  -0,  -u;  2,.haf-ast;  3,haf-dd;  imperative  ^aZ-a.  For  other  forms, 
see  pages  84, 85,  86. 


IRREGULAE  VERBS.  117 

Secgan,  say  (^  209),  has  sagdst,  sagud,  saga  to  put  with  a  sagian;  so 
icllan  and  talian,  tell  (^  209)  ;  hycgan  and  hogian,  mind  (^  211),  etc. 

223.  Weak  Verbs  with  RiJcKUiMLAUT  :  bycge,  buy,  bohte,  etc.  {^  211). 

224.  Forms  disguised  by  ecthlipsis  and  the  like. 
(a.)  Ecthlipsis  of  g,  h,  or  j>  : 

bregdan^brede,  braid;   strcgdan'^  strode,  strow ;  frignan^frine, 
ask,  etc.,  vowel  e,  i  kept  short  by  ablaut  (§  202) ;    lecgan,  lay,  im- 
perf.  legde^lede  ;  sxgde^sxde,  said,  etc.  (i^  209);  sjugian,  be  si- 
lent, spigad^ spiad,  etc. ;  bogan  >  Jorf,  boasts. 
fo<^fdhc,  catch;    ho<ihdhe.,  hang,  etc.  (»^  208,  J);   seu<Csihe,  etc. 

(§  205)  ;   and  many  others,  strong  and  weak. 
gerpan  (le,  y,  i,  ea,  x),  equip  ;   imperf.  gyrede,  p.  p.  gegyrped,  gyred, 
serpan  (y),  contrive ;  indie,  pres.  plur.  syrpad,  syrepad;  imperf.  syr- 
p{e)de,  syr{e)de  (e)  ;    p.  p.  gesyrped. 
{b.)  DissiMiLATED  GEMINATION  :  p^  up'^  ep  (^  117);    (i^ig^ige, 
regular,  ^  183);    syrepad  <^  syrpan,  contrive;    gefrsetepod  <^  gefrxtpian, 
adorn.     Compare  poruhte  <Cporlite  <Cpyrcan,  work  (^  211). 

(c.)  Assimilation:  po^u;  pi'^u;  pperan,  weld,  p.p.  gcl)poren~^ ge- 
puren  (^  200) ;  sp'igian  (y),  be  silent,  imperf.  sugode,  spigodc  (^  224,  a). 

(d.)  Shifting  o?  f,  p  to  u:  begraucn<ibegrafen<^grafcn,  grave  (^207); 
hi-pdune <^pdpen<^pdpan,  blow  (^  208,2). 

(e.)  Interchange  of  g,  i,  and  p :  (h  and  g  regular  (^^  197, 118)) ;  buian, 
bugian,  bupian,  inhabit  (^  221) ;  herian,  herig(e)an,  herpan  (y),  blaspheme ; 
and  many  more.     For  seon,  see,  seah,  seegon,  (ge)sepen,  ^  197. 

(/.)  Metathesis:  /W^nan>/rm^an,  ask  (i^(^  201,202) ;  gej)rucn<i,ge- 
pperen,  weld  (^  200),  etc. 

225.  ISTOETHUMBRIAX.  —  INFLECTION.— Indic.  pres.  sing.  :  l,-o;  2, 
-est;  "i,  -ed^-es ;  plur. -arf]>-a5.  Subjunctive:  sing. -e  ;  plur. -e«>-e. 
Infinitive  :  -an  (rare)  >-a>-a?>-e.  Imperfect  plur.  -un,  -on  drops  n  be- 
fore a  subject  ivoe  (pe),  we,  or  gie  (gc),  ye,  and  -u,  -o  may  go  to  e  or  i. 

Variation. — The  vowels  of  ablaut  and  other  variation  may  change  as  in 
^  26.  The  first  form  of  ablaut  (^^  199,  200)  has  present  ea,  eo ;  imperf. 
sing,  ie,  oe,  e ;  plur.  oe,  e.  The  contracted  imperfects  (<^  208)  have  c,  ei. 
ea.  Weak  verbs  with  stem  -ia  (^  160)  in  the  present  drop  i  with  compensa- 
tive gemination  (^  188,  i).  Stem  e  remains  often  in  the  imperfect,  and  oft- 
enest  in  the  p.  p.,  except  in  verbs  having  riickumlaut  (^  189,  d).  Stem  6 
goes  to  d.     Participle  pres.  often  in  -and. 

Irregular  Verbs. — (For  first  person  -m,  see  ^  165,  a) : 

Wo5a=:  Ang.-Sax.  pesan  :    Pres.  indic.  1,  am,  eom  ;    2,  ard ;    3,  is; 
plur.  aron,  sind,  sindon.      Subjunctive,  ste.      Pres.  indic.  1,  bium 
{om);  2,  bist ;  3,  bid;  iilur.  bidon.     Imperf.  hvt5 ;  ])\aT.  woerun. 
GAA  =  Ang.-Sax.  gdn,  go:    Pres.  indic.  1,  g&  (geongo) ;    2,  gi&s ;   3, 
gxd;  plur.  gdad  (gdd).    Imperf.  edde. 


118  IRREGULAK  VERBS.— DERIVATION. 

D6A^Ang.-Sax.  dun,  do  :    Pros,  indie.  1,  dom  (do)  ;  2,  docs ;  3,  doed ; 

plur.  doad  (doed).     Subj.  do.     Impcrf.  di/dc. 
Wa//a  =  Ang.-Sax. />///a«,  will ;    Pros,  indie.  1,  w/Y/o  ,•  2,ioilt;  3,wil; 

plur.  ivallad.    Impcrf.  icaldc.    Other  forms  generally  agree  with  the 

West  Saxon. 

226.  Weathering  of  Inflection  Endings.  —  (For  variation  of  root 
vowel,  see  ^^  199-211): 

Indicative  Present. 

Ang.-Sax.  Layamon.  Ormulura.  Chaucer.  Shakespeare. 

S.        W.  S.        W.  S.  &  W.  S.  &  W.  S.  &  W. 

Sing. — 1.     e       ie  e       ie  e  e, —  — 

2.  est     ast        est     est  esst  est  est 

3.  e^(^)  ad{p)   ed{p)  ed{p)  epp  eth,  es  cth,  s 
Plur.—  ad{p)  iad{p)  ed{p)  ied{p)        enn                   eth,  en,  e  — 

Imperfect. 
—       e  —        e  —  e,  —  — 

e       est         e     est,  c       c,  — ,  est        est  est 

:n      en        enn    enn        en,  e,  —    en,  e,  —       — 

Subjunctive  sing,  e,  plur.  en,  e,  stands  to  Chaucer,  is  gone  in  Shakespeare. 
Imperative  sing,  e,  a,  plur.  ed,  ad,  weathers  like  the  indicative. 
Infinitive  an,  Layamon  en,  Ormulum  enn,  Chaucer  en,  e, — ,  Shakesp.  — . 
Participle  present  enJe  >  Layaifton  ende,  inde,  inge,  Chaucer  end,  and, 

yng,  Shakespeare  ing,  conforming  with  verbal  nouns  in  i?io-<^Ang.-Sax. 

ung,  ing. 
Participle  past  en'^n;  od^ad^ ed.      The  prefix  ge- > Layamon  i-  is 

rare  in  Ormulum ;  Chaucer  often  uses  i-  or  y-,  but  with  this  participle 

only  ;  Shakespeare  ridicules  it. 


Sing.— 1. 

— 

e 

2. 

e 

est 

3. 

— 

e 

Pluk. — 

on 

on 

VII.   DERIVATION. 

22V.  Word  stems  are  made  from  roots  and  radicles  (§§  50,  5V). 
The  Parent  Speech  made  stems  by  suffixing  a  radicle  to  a  root  or 
stem,  (2)  by  change  of  a  root  vowel  (progression),  (3)  by  redupli- 
cation, (4)  by  combining  stems. 

(a.)  The  last  class  are  called  compound,  the  others  simple. 

{b.)  Words  having  stems  formed  from  verb  stems  are  called  verbals;  from 
noun  stems,  denominatives. 

(c.)  The  radicle  makes  more  definite  the  indefinite  notion  of  a  root  by  in- 
dicating a  particular  relation  in  which  it  is  to  be  conceived.  It  often  brings 
it  under  some  one  of  the  parts  of  speech. 

The  vowel  change  has  a  similar  force  symbolically. 


DERIVATION.  119 

Composition  or  coalescence  combines  two  notions. 

(d.)  Certain  notional  stems  used  as  the  latter  part  of  compounds  lose  their 
notional  force,  and  become  in  effect  relational  suffixes.  It  is  not  easy  al- 
ways to  separate  these  from  suffixes  springing  directly  from  radicles. 

228.   Suffixes  fkom  Radicles  (§  56). 

The  suffixes  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  nominative  or  present  are  at  the  left. 
Small  letters  above  the  line  have  dropped.  Latin  stems  in  o-  are  of  the 
second  declension,  and  imply  a  nominative  in  -us,  -um,  or  -er  {^  70,). 

Suffix. 

1.  Vowels.                          Sanskrit.                     Greek.  Latin.  Gothic.  Anglo-Saxon. 

— '^<a:  jug-d,YokQ,V jug, loin \  Zvy-6-v;  jug-o-;  juh-^'s;  iuk^. 

e<a(verb):    hhar-d-mi,  1 'be.a.x ;  (pip-oj ;  f^^-o ;  bair-a;  ber-e. 

"<'■■ r'V:xt, """)  '»'-'■  «"="= J-"-:  \'"^T'\-j--" -"■ 

— '  <  i :    uh-i,  snake,  V  aah,  sin  ;    ty-i-c  ;  annu-i-s ;    ]  ' '         f  cpin^. 

'       ^  '  '^  "^  (  woman ;        )  ' 

y  ( d<^-u',  quick,  V  ale,  to  j    ,      ,  j  ac-u-s,        (  hand-u,    V  (  han(P\ 

(  be  sharp ;  )  '  (needle;       \  hantk,ca.tch;\  hand. 

e<ja:  mddh-j'a,  Tniddlc;      }ik(jaov<^fit^-jo-v;  med-io-;       mid-ji-s;         midd<Cmide, 

a'^<jan:   Lat.  kg-ion-is,  legion;   Goth.  maurthr-jaP',  vnuTieieT;  Ang.-Sax.  muntr-a'^. 

J       ..  ivid-ja,  wit,  Vvid,  see ;  (  o(T(Ta< po ic-^'a,  f  ivrsid-ia,  sit-iband-i,  (  bend''', 

W^y-i',  goddess  ;  {  voice, -/roi;  1  t™gi°^^ait;  (-/iawc/;       (bond. 

ie,  6  <  aja  in  verb  stems,  see  §  IGO. 

a      -.^      ^  {Zt'""''T'\0.1i.G.magat-i,  j  "J'^'^-^'f 

ena<ja(+na):    )  chM,<pra.(c)-c,  ^   ..^^^1,^,1^  <m^rf, 

[  child;  ;  I     maid. 

2.  Semi-vowels. 

p*(u,  o)<va:..   e'-va,  going,  V  i,  go  ;        at- pwi^,  time ;  «3-ro- ;  ai-v^-s;         a-p(^. 

])U<  vTi,  p*  (u,  o) )  I  far-bu(^pu),  color ; 

<vja.:    )  (  6ea(f-M,  battle. 

„    .  igkar-md,  heat,  Vghar,  ].,,,-  „  n 

ni''<ma:  Y  '  '      ''       '/ Srep-uo-r,  hot;    for-mo- ;       var-mr ;  pear-m". 

(  radiate;  )      ' 

r.  ,  ((g)na-man,  name,         ]        ,  ^  ^  a,        s  « 

ma" <  man:    ....•{,  '  i  yi-'w-uov-or  :     ((i)no-mcn ;  na-mu(-man);  na-ma". 

X      Vgna,  know ;  )  i       f        ■-'     yjJ  \        /  > 

For  ma,  ra,  as  sufDxes  of  comparison,  see  §§  123,  126. 

!dg'-ra,^e\CL,  V og,  go;     oy-po-j; ;  ag-ro- ;         ak-r^-s;         ac-(e)r'^. 

sdd^a,  seat,  V  sad, — ;    'iS-pa;  sel-la(d>r);  sit-l^-s ;  set-(e')l^. 

Here  put  c?-«i»,  or^^^,  nr^^^  er-e{<-ja),  al^^^^  e?«.  *,  oZ«.  *,  nl'^^h  eU{<-ja). 

|Gr.  (-Tjpo  +  lo),  Lat.  {-dri+io),  Goth,  (-ar+^a),  (Bopp  gives  -ar-ja<.idr-ja). 
'"  \Lat.  libr-dr-io-(ius'),  hook-man;  Goth,  bolc-ar-ci-s,  Ang.-Sa's..  buc-er-e,  O.H.G. 
buoch-er-i  (ari'). 
jj      j^  f«(Z-(ira,  water,  j  rfp-fv-oc,  smooth;    f ^f c^-c re,  comb ;   \  vat-6(4n-s),(  pxt-a^. 

'  I  Vvad,yfet.    ( f/K-ov-or,  likeness  ;  \  ed-6n-is,  eater ;  \     water.     \  pwt-e-'^^. 

For  more  of  -an,  see  §§  95, 105,  a;   for  infinitive  -ana,  p.  p.  -na,  §  175. 


120  DERIVATION. 

Semi-vowela — 


Contintted. 


Sanskrit.  Greek.  Latin.  Gothic.  Aug.-Sar. 


.    ,  (svap-na,  sleep, )  „  f  som-nM-s<  f  lar-rfl,       ( spef-(e)n'^, 

V  V  svap,  sleep ;  J  (    sop-no-s ;  I  bairn ;        (      sleep. 

.  .    ^  ^ 2)haH~7ia,  ( KtSpi-vo-c,  \  fraxi-no,  { silubrei-n^s,  \  ^ 

^  ■       Ifruit-bearing;   \    cedam ;  (    aslicn;  I     silvern;      j     '' 

;        .  ian-m.  fire,         )     .  ^,  .      .      ^  ( lihai-m,      ( leof-(e)n^, 

"^<'"=    (     v/L^;  JF'^-C,wrath;        ,^-,.-.,fire;       |^.^^^^^;^.    W,^,  H,', 

(sft-niL  son,         )  .    ^  ,     ,  ,       ,     f  sii-nzi-s,      ] 

nu  :   <    /       ,  I  S-p/y-j^u-c,  stool ;        ma-nu-s,  hSLua ;  )  }  su-nv,  son. 

IvsM,  bear;       3     '^  (    son;         ;  ' 

^   ,    ^  /,   X        (' S's-atva,  goddess ;  r  rra-ma,  queen,  f  O.H.Ger.  i        ,     „„ 

en"''<a-nja:   ...^    ^     ,       .,         <  paeriX-tvi^a,  <      <?T(7-s(a;),     {  gut-in^^,  >        ,, 

I  dra'swife;  /     /    -n  ,.  i,  I    goddess, 

l  queen  (i'j/<i7)  ;    I  king;  >■  goddess;  ) 

(  Lat.  (exter-no),  extrdnco-,  belonging  to    (  0.  H.  Ger.  cst-r-uni.  \ 
erne  <  ar-a-nja :  ^      .,.      ,        .       oo  mo  i,    ion  on        1  4.  (  east-erne. 

I     that  ea;</-a ;  (-cr,  §§  122,  o;  129,  2) ;       (  eastern;  ) 

3.  Dentals. 

fFor  p.  p.  -ta,  Gotli.  -da,  -tha,  §  175,  5;   for  -ta-ra,  -ta-ma,  -ta-ta  in  compar- 

*^'  I     ison,  §  126. 

Here  belong  Ang.-Sax.  -ff«  (dd"',  U"',  nad"'),  -d«  (otZ",  wfZ«,  e(Z«),  -<«  (o^«,  et"). 

r pi-tar,  fother,  )  7ra-rfp-oe  ;  pa-ter ;  fa-der ;       fxd-er. 

cter,  der,  dl*  <  \    ^ ^^^  feed ;    j  ^^^^  Qr.  vs,  Lat.  we>(needle)  lie-tUa;        nx-dlK 

'&/ira'-^a?-,  brother ;  (ppd-rop-ot: ;        frd-tcr ;  hro-thar ;      lirMor. 

estre"<as-ta-ra(Latin  surd-astro-,  deafish;  j  ^^^.g^^^  6a.c-«<.-e-''^  female  baker. 

(  +  an) :  K.  French  poet-astre,  petty  poet ;  J 

..    „•     •       .         {ma-ti  mmd,      ■>     _  .  .,•       ( my7i-d^, 

(f,  d\t^<ti:  ...i    ,  ,.  ,     (Lui-ti-q;  men-it-s ;  mun-th^-s;  i      . 

'  (V  ma-n,  think ;)  ( .^^i  .^»_ 

,  .  /  sta-tii-s ;  (j-tu-ti,  i  ddu-thu-s,  r  ded-d^ ; 

(stha-tu-m,  Biaxi.(l,  (Vaa-Tv,  cit}' ;  1   ^     ,       ,     7-      \      ,     ,,        I       ,  7  ^^ 

tu :  <     ,    ■,  A  ,     w  ^  V    < -tu-a<m, -tu-dm,  <     death,     <  Qe-hoh-i"; 

\Vstka,  st^na;  k..v..r,<-rvvn);\  ^^^^  .  \  ,,^J,  ^V.^i^^,: 

nes^^  (nis^',  ny s^') )  j  gudji-nassu-s,  f  gvd-nes^^, 

<na+as+tu:  3  (  priest-hood;    (goodness, 

ende<ant:  §  175,  3. 

^ ,      •,    (qan-as,  genus,  )     ,  .       ( ag-is^,       \ 

es-an<asC+an):(^^^^^^^^^,    ^  y.v-o-e ;  ^e,^-u., -e.-z.;    j  ^^^ .        | 

[ere  pui 
(e)ru 

''^  I  <  i 
esl^  5       (  as +la 3  0. H.G.  ra«-»saZ<^,  riddle;      Swedish  jvcrf-eZse;  Ang.-Sax.  racZ- 

4.  Gutturals. 

ih^  iga<ka-       ('^*'«'^^'"-^'«'        Uoy<-/co-c,of  (  Se/H-co-,  of     .U''^''^-^-/'''-^.  I  „r^<^;.„a 

'    °         '  ■  '"Ifrom  yS'mrf^M;    (        logos;  \       war;  (     greedy;     ) 

Here  put  h^,  oc^'  ^,  uc^'  ^ 
.,  ,„                         ^  { steina-ha,      { stiin-ih-t^ , 

'^^   ■ O.H. Ger.  .fem-oH  stony;  {    ^^^^^.        \    ^^^^_^_ 


eg-esa"', 
V  ag,  fear. 

^     ^  ■>    MGoth.  -iza,  O.H.G.  -ira,  A.-S.  -eriiy-ru  in  plurals  wg-ru,  eggs,  etc.  (§82, a). 
els'''  I  ^  J  al  +  sa  1 0.  H.  G.  faot-isal^,  fodder ;   0.  Norse  foed-sla ;    Ang.-Sax.  fed-els^,  -esl^. 


SUFFIXES.— QUASI-SUFFIXES.  121 

Sanskrit.  Greek.  Latin.  Gothic.  Ang.-Sax. 

.     „      . ,  , ,  (  7Taic-l(TKo-Q,  f  scutr-isco-,    ^  harrv-isW-^^  f    ., ,  .    „ 

^  ^  ( little  child  (TTatc-) :  |  little  plate ;  [    c^^iluish  ;  i 


Syr-isco;       i  J  Engl-isc^, 

\  a  Syrian ;    /  l^  English. 

ing*<i(n)g^:  0.  H.G.  etfj'Z-mc^,  noble-man  ;  A.-SdiX.  xdcl-ing'^ ;  Elis-mg'^, 

son  of  Elisha. 
1-ing'* : O.  H.  G.  junJii-linc'^ ,  a  youth  ;    A. -Sax.  geong-ling'^  <^geong, 

young. 
ung\  ing^:    O.H.G.  warn-unga,  v!a.rmng  ;   A.-SsiX.  pcarn-wig^  {-ing^) 

(pearn-ian,  to  warn), 
incle :  Lat.  domu-n-cu-lo,  little  house  {domo-)\   O.H.G.  csil-inchilin^ 

little  ass;  A. -Sax.  hus-incle,  little  house. 

For  suffixes  of  pronouns  and  numerals,  see  ^§  130-140  ;  for  those  of  com- 
parison, ^^  122-129.    The  endings  of  adverbs  are  mostly  from  case-endings. 

229.    QuASI-SuFFIXES    FE03I   NoTIONAL    StEJIS. 

sern,  em,  house;   Goth,  razn,  O.Norse  rann :   slwp-ern,  sleeping-room; 

hors-ern,  stable.      Often  mixed  with  Latin  radicle  suffix  -ern :  Lat.  lat- 

ern-a,  lucerna,  A. -Sax.  bldc-ern,  lant-ern  ;  Lat.  tab-erna,  A. -Sax.  gxst- 

ern,  tav-ern  ;  Lat.  career,  A.-Sax.  carc-ern,  prison  ;  A. -Sax.  cpeart-ern, 

quarters. 
beere,  bearing  ;  Lat.  -ferus,  O.  H.  G.  pari,  0.  Nor.  hier:  lust-h&re,  lust-y, 

joyous, 
cxind,  kind ;  Gr.  --/iv-ijc,  Lat.  -gena,  Goth,  hunds,  0.  H.  G.  chund:  dcofol- 

cimd,  devil-ish  ;  god-cund,  god-like. 
craeft,  craft;  0.  Sax.  -kraft,  O.  H.  G.  -chraft:   sta^f-crxft,  (letter -craft) 

grammar. 
cyn,  kind ;    Lat.  gen-us,  Goth,  kuni,  O.  Sax.  kunni,  0.  Nor.  kynni,  O.  H. 

G.  chunni:  treop-eyn,  (tree-kind)  wood;  man-cyn,  man-kind. 
daeg,  day;  Goth,  dags,  0.  Sax.  dag,  0.  Nor.  dagr,  O.  H.  G.  tac :  gear-dxg, 

(yore-days)  formerly. 
dom,  judgment,  authority,  dominion  ;  O.  Nor.  -domr,  0.  H.  G.  -tuom,  Ger. 

-thum:  cyning-dom,  kingdom. 
f3est,  fast ;  0.  Nor.  -fastr,  M.  H.  G.  -vcste,  Ger.  -/est:  ar-fxst,  honorable  ; 

stSide-fxst,  stead-fast. 
feald;  fold  ;    Goth,  faiths,  O.  Nor.  -faldr,  0.  IL  G.  -fall :    mxnig-fcald, 

manifold. 
ful,  full  ;    Goth,  fulls,  O.  Sax.  -ful,  0.  Nor.  -fullr,  O.  IL  G.  -fol :    ur-ful, 

honorable.     Sansk.  pur,  Gr.  ttXe-wc,  Lat.  ple-nus. 
had,  character,  state,  rank;    O.  IL  G.  -heit :   hrodor-hdd,  brother  -  hood  ; 

mabden-hdd,  maidcn-hcad. 


122  QUASI-SUTFIXES— ABLAUT. 

heaiv;,  hnrd  ;   Goth,  hard-u-s,  0.  Nor.  -hardr,  O.  II.  G.  -hart,  O.  French 

-ard:  jna^^n-hcard,  (might-hard)  very  mighty;  drunk-ard;  bragg-art. 
lac,  sport,  gift;   Oc^.Jdi/cSr  O.  Nor.  Icikr,  O.II.G.  -leih:  feoht-lde,  fight; 

O.  Eng.  lovc-laik,  love  ;  know-lcdgc  ;  j>ed-ldc,  wed-lock. 
leas,  loose  from ;    Goth,  -laus,  O.  Sax.  -los,  0.  Nor.  -laus,  O.  II.  G.  -laos, 

-16s :  dr-leds,  (honor-less)  dishonorable  ;  god-leas,  god-less. 
lie,  like  ;  Goth,  -lei/cs,  O.  Nor,  -Ukr,  -I'egr,  O.  H.  G.  -IVi :  dr-lic,  (honor-like) 

honorable ;  god-lie,  god-ly.     Sansk.  -drk,  Gr.  -\ik,  Lat.  -lie. 
man,  man  ;    Goth.  7nans,  O.  Sax.  -7nan,  O.  Nor.  -madr,  0.  H.  G.  -man: 

glc6-man,  glee-man  ;  ptf-man,  vvo-man. 
m^l,  time  ;    Goth.  -mU,  O.  Sax.  -mahal,  O.  Nor.  -mdl,  O.  H.  G.  -mahal, 

7ndl{i):  ««oem-maJ/,  noon-time  ;   5/ycce-m£c/«OT,  piece-meal, 
r^den  (Lat.  ralio),  mode,  fashion  :  freond-r&den,  friend-ship ;  m&g-r&den, 

kind-red. 

red,  reed,  counsel,  condition  ;   O.  N.  -rdd,  0.  II.  G.  -rdt :   ht-red,  (hive-con- 
dition) family; 

rice,  prince  ;  Goth,  -reiks,  O.  Nor.  relcr,  O.  H.  G.  -Hh,  Sansk.  rd'g'an,  Lat. 

rex  :  sige-riee,  victorious.     (2)  =:ddm,  eyne-riee,  kingdom. 
5  sceaft,  shape,  manner ;   0.  Sax.  -scaft,  O.  H.  G.  (10th  century)  scaft. 
i  scipe  (y),  shape,  manner  ;   O.  Sax.  -seepi,  O.  Nor.  scapr,  O.  H.  G.  seaf: 

freond-scipe,  friend-ship  ;    Jujge-sceaft,  mind-state  ;   land-sceap  {-scipe), 

land-scape  (-skip), 
smid,  smith  ;  O.  Nor.  -smidr,  O.H.  G.  -sinid :  pig-smid,  warrior;  Goth.  -a. 
staef,  stafl';    O.  Nor.  -slafr,  O.II.G.  -stap  :  fdcen-sta'f,  wickedness;   dr- 

sfa'f,  honor. 

sum,  same,  like  ;  O.  Nor.  -sam^',  O.  H.  G.  -sam  :  pyn-sum,  winsome,  joyous. 
teme(y)  =  sum:  hif-tijmc,  loxeXy  \  hejig-ti/77ic,  troublesome;  Jtpeorh-te77ie, 
perverse. 

pare,  men  ;  Goth.  vai7-,  O.  Sax.  iver:  R6m-pare,  Romans.    Sansk.  vtr-a-s, 

Gr.  i'ip-u)£,  Lat.  vir. 
peard,  becoming,  tending  to;   Goth,  -vairths,  O.II.G.  -luert,  -wart:  hdm- 

peard,  home-ward.     Sansk.  vrt,  Lat.  vert-crc. 
pis,  wise  ;   O.  Sax.  -ivtsi;   O.  Nor.  -vts  ;  M.  H.  G,  wise  :  riht-pis,  (wise  as 

to  rights)  righteous.     ^/  vid.,  ^  212. 

230.  New  Stems  proii  Variation  of  Root  Vowel. 

Ablaut. — The  vowel  of  the  present  denotes  the  act  or  an  object  suited  to 
act ;  those  of  the  past  denote  result,  the  plural  being  more  abstract.  But  in 
many  derivatives  this  force  is  lost. 

First  Conjugation,  (e(eo);  s;(ea);  ai(«);  e;  §i  199) :  beran  {bcora7i),  hear, 
'^hcord,  birth;  here,  barley;  5earn,  child  ;  b&r,  bier,  {i ;  a,u;  u;  ^201): 
singan,  sing,  ^sang,  song,  song  ;   grindan,  grind,  ^g7-und,  ground. 


UMLAUT.— FORMATION  OF  NOUNS.  123 

Second  Conjugation,  (t;  a,  i;  i;  ^  205) :  drifan,  drive,  ^  draf,  drove  ; 
bttan,  bite,  >  bit,  bit ;  biter,  bitter  ;  bat,  bait. 

Third  Conjugation,  (eo  (w) ;  ed,  u ;  o  ;  ^  206)  :  beogan,  bend, >  5fia/?,  ring  ; 
boga,  bow ;  tedhan,  tug,  >  ieam,  team ;  io^a,  duke  ;  tyht,  CoUise. 

Fourth  Conjugation,  {a{ea) ;  o,  o ;  a  (ea) ;  ^  207) :  grafan,  grave, >^ra'/, 
grave  ;  ^ro/,  ditch ;  sceapan,  shape,  '^scop,  shaper,  poet. 

Umlaut. — The  same  stem  may  occur  with  and  without  umlaut  or  break- 
ing, but  this  variation  does  not  make  a  new  word,  though  it  may  be  the  be- 
ginning of  bifurcation  (^  40,3).  Since  the  ablaut  became  irregular  (§  199) 
new  words  have  been  formed  in  large  numbers  by  irregular  bifurcation. 

Suffixes  arranged  according  to  tueir  Use, 
Formation  of  Substantives. 

231.  Indefinite  Noun-signs  :  u<a,  — *</,  — ^<Cjd,  u,  — '^<a,  e< 
ja,  a.<^an,  e<^an. 

These  combine  with  the  case-endings  (^^  69-95),  and  are  abundantly  used 
as  secondary  suffixes ;  — ^  is  found  oftenest  with  names  of  actions  and  qual- 
ities, u  with  names  of  qualities,  e  and  a  with  agents. 

gif-u  {gif-an,  give),  gift.  drinc'^  {drinc-an,  drink),  drink. 

du:d^  {don,  do),  deed.  hird-e  (Goth,  haird-ci-s),  bird. 

pyn^^  (O.  Sax.  wunnia),  fun.  han-a''''  (-y/can,  sing),  cock. 

mag-u  {mag-an,  get),  son.  tung-e,  -an,  tongue. 

232.  Agent.  —  Masculine  a,  end,  ere,  o<C.ja,  F  (e/«,  ol^,  ul'^),  der, 

der,  ter. 
Feminine  e<Can,  en^^,estre,  — <^i,  id,  isse  (Lat.  issa). 
Instruments  and  means:  els^,  ele,  el^,  dP,  or^  {cr^). 

{e)nK 
Quasi-suffix,  smid. 

dem-a  {dem-an,  deem),  judge.  myr-e,  -an  {mearh,  horse),  mare. 

dem-end  {dem-an,  deem),  judge.  fix-en,  enne  (fox),  vixen. 

dem-ere  {dcm-an,  deem),  judge.  sang-estre  {sing-an,  sing),  songster. 

sang-ere  {sing-an,  sing),  singer.  fcd-cls  {fed-an,  feed),  victuals. 

pin-e  (Vpin,  love),  friend.  net-ele  (Vna,  sew)?  nettle. 

forc-rin-el  {rinn-an,  run),  fore-run-  sct-l^,  n.  {sittan,  sit),  settle. 

ncr.  n&-dl^  (V^^)  sew),  needle. 

fx-dcr  {^/  pa,  feed),  father.  fod-or^  {fed-an,  feed),  fodder. 

bro-der  (-y/bhar,  support),  brother,  leof-cn^  {lif-an,  live),  victuals. 

speos-ter,  f.  (sva-su-tar,  connected  byg-els,  bow  ;  ham-or^,  hammer. 

woman;  -y/su,  bear).  /'/^-5mi«/ (war-smith),  warrior. 
ahbud-issc,  abbess. 


124 


DERIVATION. —SUBSTANTIVES. 


233.  Action. — Masculine  and  Neuter  t^  {oic,  ct^'),  d:«  {ad,  ud,  nad). 
Feminine  ing',  uiig^  1'',  le*^'*  {elc,  ole,  ule). 
Quasi-sufllx,  lac. 

hern-ing  (beorn-an,  burn),  burning. 

hicrn-ung  {beorn-an,  burn),  burning. 

sping-cl''  \  {sping-an,  scourge),  scourg- 

sping-ele '      ing. 

beadu-lac'^  (fight-sport),  fighting. 

ptf-ldc,  marriage. 


d-rts-t  (j-w-^n;  rise),  resurrection. 
bcvrn-et  {beorn-an,  burn),  burning. 
hunt-ad  {hunt-ian,  hunt),  liunting. 
hunt-od  {hunt-ian,  hunt),  hunting. 
hunt-nad  {hunt-ian,  hunt),  hunting. 


234.  Result. — Masculine  m^  (em^,  wm«),  ma",  n",  (i.<^<C.(u,  t^  <  ^m. 
Neuter  n^. 


Feminine  (e)n^. 
cpcal-m^  {cpell-an,  kill),  death. 
pxs-t-m'^  {peax-an,  wax),  fruit. 
blu-ma^  {blop-an,  blow),  bloom. 
heof-en^  {hebb-an,  heave),  heaven. 


ded-d^  (y'dau,  die),  death. 
ge-poh-f^  {pinc-an,  think),  counsel. 
bcar-nC'  {ber-an,  bear),  child. 
scl-en''  {sell-an,  give),  gift. 


235.  Quality  and  objects  named  from  it. — 

Feminine  u  {o,  eo),  nes'^'  {nis,  nys),  (u)(l«,  d^  t^ 
Neuter  &^,  6P;  t^,  used  instead  of  d^,  d^,  i^  when  ge-  or 

other  prefix  is  used  with  an  abstract. 
Masculine  ing^- 

Quasi-suffixes,  craeft,  cyn,  dom,  had,  man,  red,  rfed- 
en,  rice,  sceaft,  sceap,  scipe,  stasf. 


hivt-u  (hdt,  hot),  heat. 
sireng-u,  -a,  -eo,  strength. 
ge-Uc-nes^^,  like-ness. 
7nild-heort-nes^^,  mercy. 
streng-d^,  strength. 
ge-cyn-d^,  nature. 
pit-leds-f',  wit-lessness. 
gyme-lys-t^,  heed-lessness. 
geog-ud^  {geong),  youth. 
ge-ping-d^,  honor. 
ge-cyn-d^,  nature. 
gc-pih-f^  {peg-an,  weigh),  weight. 
oadel-ing^,  noble-man. 


l&ce-crxft^,  m.  leech-craft. 
Ixce-cyn^,  n.  (leech-kind),  doctors. 
Ixce-dom^,  m.  leech-craft. 
pts-dom  {pis,  wise),  wisdom. 
cild-hdd^,  m.  child-hood. 
pcop-hdd,  serf-dom. 
sud-man,  m.  Southerner. 
hi-red^,  f.  (hive-state),  family. 
freond-r&den^,  f.  friendship. 
hyge-sceaft''',  f  (mind  state),  thinking. 
land-sceap,  n.,  -scipe,  m.,  land-scape, 
dr-stwf^,  m.  honor.  L-skip. 

hsceop-ricc,  n.,  bishopric. 


230.  Diminutives:  c  (?<c«,  oc^),  1  (Z^<(;)^a),le<?/+a«,  ling,  incle'«, 

end  <^  ja-\-na. 
k  (questioning;  ^  56)  and  1  (trilling)  are  suited  to  express  diminution. 


DEKIVATIOX.— ADJECTIVES.  125 

The  Sanskrit  diminutive  is  k;  Greek,  lo,  ck;  Latin,  /,  c-l ;  Goth.,0.  H.G., 
/  most ;  Low  German,  k  most.  Anglo-Saxon  words  in  uca,  el,  le  are  rel- 
ics ;  ling  is  growing  into  use.     The  English  uses  ock,  ling. 

bull-uca'^,  bull-ock.  geong-ling^,  m.  young-ling. 

cyrn-el^,  n.  {corn,  corn),  kernel.  rdp-incle,  n.  {rdj),  rope),  string. 

meop-le,{.  (Goth.  maj;2,  virgin ;  7na-  ci/c-e?/^,  n.  {coc,  cock),  chicken. 

vilo,  little  girl),  girl.  imJegd-en'^,  n.  {tnxgd,  maid),  maiden. 

237.  Patronymics:  ing^. 

Alfred  JEdclpulf-ing(^,  Alfred  son  of  ^thelwulf. 

238.  Gentiles:  e<M,  an,  isc,  ing^  (^  101,2). 

Quasi-suffix,  pare. 
Engl-e  (§  83),  English.  Englisc,  adj.,  English. 

Got-an,  Goths.  Pyr-ing-ds,  Thyringians,  descendants 

Rom-pare,  Romans.  of  Thyr. 

239.  Place  :  en«,  ene«».  Time  : 

Quasi-suffix,  eni  {asm),  etc.  (^  101).  .  .  d^g,  m^l. 
midl-en^,  n.  midst.  dom-ern"',  n.  {dom,  doom),  judgment- 

cyc-ene,  f.  {coc,  cook),  kitchen.  hors-ern,  n.  horse-stable.  [hall. 

gedr-dwg,  m.  (yore-day),  antiquity,      undern-mwl,  n.  noon-time. 


ADJECTIVES. 

240.  Indefinite  Suffixes  combining  with  case-endings:    — ^,  u<^«, 
— *,  a<^an,  e<^an. 

Any  adjective  theme  may  have  stems  in  all  these  endings  (^^  103-114). 

241.  Characteristic,  connoting  quality  of  the  object  denoted  by  the 
stem :  isc. 

Quasi-suffixes,  cund,  lie  (with  nouns). 

cild-isc  {cild,  child),  child-ish.  ptf-lic  {pif,  woman),  having  the  qual- 

deofol-cund,  (devil-kind)  dcvil-ish.  ities  of  a  woman,  womanly. 

(a.)  Patrial  isc  also  connotes  origin  from  a  place  or  stock  :   Rumdn-isc, 
Roman  ;  Lunden-isc,  Londonish  ;  Engl-isc,  English. 

242.  Fitness  or  disposition  for  the  act  or  state  denoted  by  the  theme : 
ol,  or. 

Quasi-suffixes,  fus,  lie  (with  verbs),  sum,  tyme,  pis. 
.s;)ri?c-oZ(.?/?rec-an,  speak),  talk-ativc.     bcalo-fus,  disposed  to  bale,  wicUcd: 
bit-or,  -er  {blt-an,  bite),  l)itter.  O.  Nor. /m5,  O.  II.  G.  funs,  ready. 


126  DERIVATION.— VERBS. 

f'^fgifcnd-Vtc,  to  be  forgiven.  luf-sum,  disposed  to  love. 

un-gcsepen-lic,  (unseen-)  invisible.  ISf-siim,  worthy  to  be  praised. 

un-gclwrcd-lic,  (unlearned-)  unlearn-  luf-tpme,  fitted  for  love. 

ed.  ri/it-jHS,  knowing  right,  righteous. 

243.  FcLLNESS,  connoting  possession  of  an  object  denoted  by  the  stem 
e<^ja,  ig,  iht,  ed. 

Quasi-suffixes,  b^re,  faest,  ful,  heard,  leas. 

pynt-e  {pcont,  worth),  worth-y.  pxstm-biJkre  (pxstm,  fruit),  fruit-ful. 

stdn-ig  {stdn,  stone),  stony,  abound-  hlys-hxrc  {hlijsa,  fame),  famous. 

ing  in  stones  (.ft).  dr-fxst  (dr,  honor),  honorable. 

pcl-ig  (pcla,  wealth),  rich.  cear-ful  (ccaru,  care),  care-ful. 

sldn-iht,  stony  (;g).  mxgeii-heard,  might-y. 

ge-hyrn-ed  {horn,  horn),  horned.  ccar-lcds  {cearu,  care),  careless. 

244.  Materi.^l,  (e)n^  :   sl&n-en  {stdn,  stone),  made  of  stone. 

gyld-en  {gold,  gold),  golden. 

245.  Place,  erne  :     sud-erne,  southern  ;        nord-ernc,  northern. 

peard :  siid-peard,  southward  ;   nord-peard,  northward. 

For  Pronouns,  see  ^^  130-137;  comparatives  and  superl.,  ^^  122-129. 
For  Numeral  -feald,  -ode,  -tig,  etc.,  see  ^^  139-148. 


VERBS. 

246.  Strong  Verb  Suffixes:   a,  ia.<ija  {^^  158,  a;  215). 

These  are  suffixed  to  a  root. 
nim-a-n,  take  ;   sper-ia-n,  swear;  sittan<^sit-ia-n,  sit. 

247.  Weak  Verb  Suffixes:  ia<fl;a,  6<^aja  (^  160). 

(a.)  aja  is  a  secondary  suffix  =  a  -\-ja,  a  belonging  to  a  simpler  word. 
In  aja  >  ia,  a  drops  ;  aja  >  ajd  y-  ad'y  o,  progression  and  contraction 
(^^  38,  52). 

{b.)  Variations :   ia,  iga,  tgea,  ga,  ca,  a,  ie,  ige,  ge,  e,  — ; 

6,  a,  a,  u,  e,  precession    and    dissimilated   gemination 
(^^  38  ;  27,  5). 

ner-ia-n,  ner-e-de,  save  ;   infinitive  ner-ia-n,  ner-iga-n,  ner-igea-n,  ner- 
ga-n;  feg-a-n,  feg-ea-n,  ']om,  fcg-{e)-de  ;    indicative  present  ner-ie, 
ner-ige,  ner-ge,  ner-e. 
sealf-ia-n,  salve,  sealf-o-de,  sealf-u-de,  scalf-a-de,  scalf-e-dc. 
247*.  Infinitive  an  is  contracted  from  aa,  Sgan,  ahan ;  on  from  d/ian, 
bhan:  gdn  {gaan),  go  ;  smeagan^smedn,  consider  ;  slcahan'^ sledn   siav 
j'owCJdhan,  catch  ;  gcfeon<^gefeohan,  rejoice  ;  tcon  <  teuhan.  tug. 


NOTEWORTHY  WEAK  VEEBS.  127 

XoTEWORTiiY  Weak  Verbs. 

248 — I.  Causatives  and  Transitives,  relics  of  the  Sanskrit  causative. 
They  have  the  highest  progression  of  the  root  (like  the  strong  imperfect 
singular),  and  i-umlaut. 

CoNJ.  1.  —  -v/ ^  •  -y/  sad^  sit;  Sansk.  std-d'mi,  sit,  causative  sdd-djd-mi, 
set ;  Goth,  sit-an,  sat-ja-n  ;  O.  Sax.  sittian,  settian ;  O.  Nor.  sit-ia, 
set-ia.      Highest  progression,  a ;    i-umlaut,  e  (^^  199-204,  32). 

sittan<^sit-ia-n,  sit;  imp.  sxt  (a)  ;  settan<^sat-ia-n,  set. 

licgan<^lig-ia-n,  lie;  imp.  lc'Pg{a)  ;  lecgmi <^lag-ia-n,  lay. 

beorn-an,  burn  ;  imp.  ham ;  bern-a-n,  cause  to  burn. 

drinc-an,  drink  ;  imp.  dranc ;  drenc-a-n,  cause  to  drink. 

CoNJ.  2.  —  "v/i-  V^T'  show;  Sansk.  causative  deg-djd-mi;  Goth,  teih-an, 
tdik-ns,  token.     Highest  progression,  d;  i-umlaut,  A  {^^  205,  32). 

Zt/t-an,  point  at ;  im^.  tdh  ;  t&c-a-n,  ievic\\. 

drtf-an,  drive ;  imp.  drdf;  drsef-a-n,  disperse. 

lict-an,  go  (by  sea)  ;  imp.  Idd;  hed-a-n,  lead. 

rts-an,  arise ;  imp.  rds ;  nir-a-n,  raise,  rear. 

CoNJ.  3.  —  V^  •    -\/^bhug',hex\A;   Sansk.  causative   blwg'-djd-mi   {^   158). 
Highest  progression,  ed  ;  i-umlaut,  y  {^^  206,  32) ;  e  often  occurs. 
bug-ail,  bow,  bend  ;         imp.  hedh ;        byg-a-n,  cause  to  bend. 
Jleog-an,  flee  ;  imp.  flcdh  ;       fl!/g-(i-n>  put  to  flight. 

CoNJ.  4. — V^)  a  :  ■%/ par,  Sansk.  causative  pdr-djd-mi,  accomplish.  High- 
est progression,  o;  i-umlaut,  e  (*^§  207,  32)  ;  or,  progression,  a;  umlaut, 
e :  Goth,  far-an,  far-ja-n,  but  gal-an,  sing,  gol-ja-n  (compare  i^  158,  e). 

far-an,  go  ;  imp.  for ;  fcr-a-n,  go  ;  far-ia-n,  carry. 

pac-an,  wake  ;  imp.  poc  ;  peccan  <^  pac-ia-n,  awaken. 

pac-ia-n,  watch,  is  also  found  —  a  later  denominative. 

Here  belong  many  verbs  apparently  formed  from  nouns  or  participles  by 
i-umlaut  of  the  root  vowel  :  hyld-an,  to  make  bent  {heald) ;  hyn-an,  to  make 
lowly  (hcdn)  ;  hrym-an,  to  cry  (hredm)  ;  pyrc-an,  to  work  (peorc)  ;  pyrm- 
an,  to  warm  {pearm) ;  yld-an,  to  delay  {eald,  old) ;  yrm-an,  to  make  wretch- 
ed {earm) ;  ypp-an,  to  lay  open  {up) ;  yt-an,  to  drive  out  (ut)  ;  words  in 
-fyld-an:  pr'i-f yld-an,  to  triple  {fcald,  fold),  etc. 

249.  —  n.  Denominatives  w-itiiout  Umlaut,  from  adjectives. 
Such  are  oftenest  neuter,  but  with  ge-  oftenest  transitive. 

micl-ia-n,  to  grow  great  (micel) ;        ge-micltaii,  to  make  great. 
litl-ia-n,  to  grow  little ;  gc-litlian,  to  make  little. 

hdt-ia-n,  to  grow  hot  (/;«/) ;  compare  hiht-an,  to  make  hot. 
pearm-ia-n,  to  grow  warm;    compare  pyrm-an,  to  make  warm. 


128  AD VKU us.— NOTIONAL  STEMS. 

'250.  —  III.   Denominative  Suffixes  grown  Verbals:    -c-,  -g-,  -n-, 
-S-,  ettaa <^alian  (^  188,  b),  l^can  : 

hi/r-c-n-ian,  hark,  hearken  {hyr-an,  hear) ;  syn-g-ian,  to  sin ;  m&r-s-ian, 
to  make  more  ;  pit-n-ian,  to  punish  ;  hdl-ettan,  -etan,  -etian.,  hail ; 
sumor-lAcan,  summer  is  near. 


ADVERBS. 
251.    Adverbial  suffixes  are  mostly  from  case-endings. 

Notional  Stems  (Nouns). 

I.  Living  Case -endings,  with  and  without  prepositions:    gen.  es,  a; 
dat.  a,  e,  um  ;   ace.  — ,  ne  ;   instrum.  e,  e  ;  weak  an. 

es  :  dcTg-cs,  by  day  ;  idwg-es,  (now)-a-days  ;  eall-es,  wholly  ;  micl-es, 
much  ;  to-midd-es,  amidst ;  neaht-es,  by  night ;  ncd-es,  needs ;  son-es, 
(eft-)soons;  7>ia?2C-e5,  willingly ;  a^<er-/>eari-e5,  afterwards ;  hdm-peard- 
C5,  homewards,      a:  ^car-a,  of  yore  (g-ear,  year). 

Adverbial  -es  is  found  with  nouns  having  their  genitive  in  -e :  nealU-e, 
ncd-e,  etc.  ;    sin-neahtes,  eternall}'. 

a,  dative  feminine  {^  93,  i)  :  dcarn-ung-a,  -inga,  -enga,  O.  Sax.  darn- 
ung-o  (^  88,  a),  O.  H.  G.  tarnunJc-un  ((l  =  Goth.  o,  i^  95,  c),  secretly; 
deorcung-a,  in  the  gloaming  ;  Scotch  darHings,  darkling  ;  eallung-a, 
wholly  ;  bxcling-a,  0.  Eng.  backlings,  on  'the  back  ;  so  O.  Eng.  nose- 
ling,  side-ling^ sidelong  (^  40,  3),  headlong,  on  the  nose,  side,  head. 
This  is  often  thought  genitive  plural ;  but  feminine  abstracts  in  -ung 
seldom  use  the  plural,  and  they  retain  the  old  dative  in  -a  (§  77,  i) ; 
while  the  0.  H.  G.  can  not  be  a  genitive  plural. 

um,  dative  plural :  hptl-um,  -on,  whilom  ;  on-sundr-on,  asunder  ;  pundr- 
um,  wondrously ;  stycce-mM-um,  piece-meal ;  seld-um,  -on,  -an,  sel- 
dom ;  lill-um,  little  ;   micl-um,  much. 

e,  e,  dative  and  instrumental :  &fr-e,e\-ex;  he od^g{e), to-day;  to-dxg-e, 
to-day  ;  tu-nihie,  to-night ;  to-ealdre,  always  ;  micle  md,  much  more  ; 
to-gxdere,  together,      an :  to-cdc-an,  moreover. 

— ,  accusative  :  ham,  home  ;  east,  east ;  pest,  west ;  ealne  peg,  always  ; 
on  peg,  away  ;  on  bxc,  back  ;  on-gedn,  against ;  eat,  all ;  nedh,  nigh  ; 
hdmpeard,  homeward  ;  on  idel,  in  vain  ;  and  comparatives  and  super- 
latives (^  123).  ne  :  cal-ne  peg,  always  ;  sum-ne  dxl,  O.  Eng.  some 
deal,  somewhat. 

II.  Obscure  Endings,  a,  e. 

(a.)    a:   Goth,  -a,  0.  Sax.  -a,  O.  II.  G.  -a,  perhaps  from  instrumental  -d 
(^63,^^). 

{]).)   The  common  adverbial  ending  from  adjectives  is  -e:    O.  Sax.  -o, 


EELATIONAL  STEMS.  129 

O.  Nor.  -a,  O.  H.  G.  -o,  Goth,  -o,  some  say  -ba.  Gothic  -ba,  -6  are  prob- 
ably akin  to  instrumental  -bhi  and  -a  {^  63,  g).  Bopp  thinks  -6  an  ablative 
ending  like  Greek  -aic<^-uT,  Latin  -6  and  -e<^-ed,  but  in  Teutonic  the  in- 
strumentals  have  a  history  analogous  to  that  of  the  ablative  in  Greek  and 
Latin ;  the  Anglo-Saxon  instrumental  has  been  kept  alive  by  the  influence 
of  this  adverb.     Grimm  thinks  -e  a  weak  singular  accusative  neuter. 

(c.)   So  many  adverbs  are  formed  from  adjectives  in  -lie,  that  -lic-e  ]> 
Eng.  -hj  is  established  as  an  ending ;   so  Icelandic  -liga,  M.  H.  G.  liche. 

fel-a,  much  ;  gen-a,  again  ;  get-a,  yet ;  son-a,  soon  ;  tel-a,  well ;  feor"' 
{Goih.  fairr a),  far;  nedh^  (Goth,  nchva),  nigh;  ofi'^  (Goth,  vfta),  oft; 
pel^  (Goth,  vaila),  well ;  jnd-e,  widely  ;  deop-e,  deeply  ;  hedge<^hedh, 
highly;  nearpe<^nearu,n7iXxo\\\y  ;  straiig-lic-e,  strongly  ;  sceort-ltc-e, 
shortly,  etc.,  etc.     For  h^g,  p'^ii,  see  ^^  117,  118. 

252.    Relational  Stems  (Pronouns  and  Prepositions), 
L   Correlatives  of  Place  : 

where,  whither,  whence ;  there,  thither,  thence  ;  here,  hither,  hence. 

A.-Sas..  hpier,  hpider,  hpanan;  pxr,  pider,  panan;  Mr,  hider,  keonan. 

O.  SaL-K..  kuar,hua!-(od\huanan;  thar,  thar(od),  thanan;  her,  her{od),  hinan. 

O.  H.  G.  kwdr,kwar-a,-ut,hwanana;  ddr,  dar-a, -vt,  danana;  hiar,ker-a,-6t,hinana. 

O.  Nor.,  kvar,  hvert,  hvadan  ;  Jjar,  padra,  padan;  her,  hedra,  hedan. 

Goth hvar,  hva-p,  -dre,  hvapro;  par,  //adei,  pjapro;  her,  hidre,  Qiepro). 

Greek...  irov,  ttoT,  tto^ev  ;  h'^a,ii'^u€(,  tvSrev;  L&t. Mc,  hue,  citro,  hinc. 

Sansk.,.  Tcu-tra,  Tcii-tra,  ku-ias;  ta-tra,  ld~tra,  td-tas ;  d-tra,  d-tra,  d-tas. 

(a.)  For  the  stem  radicles  (interrogative  hp,  demonstrative  J),  h),  ^«5>  135, 
133, 104,  130  :    hpd:r,  p&r  (;6,  a?,  «),  Ormulum  &. 

{b)  Ang. -Saxon  endings,  -r,  -der,  -nan  (-a?)) ;  -d  {sa7nod, Goth.  sama-J/) : 

-r<C  locative  -n  <^  comparative  -ra  {^^  120,  02):  Sansk.  upd-ri,  Greek 
iiri-p,  Lat.  s-upe-r,  Goth,  vfa-r,  O.  H.  G.  uba-r,  O.  Sax.  ohha-r,  Ang.~ 
Sax.  ofe-r,  over. 

-der,  -der,  Goth,  -dre,  Sansk.  -tra<^-lrd,  is  the  instrumental  of  a  com- 
parative in  -ta-ra  (^^  120,  02) :  some  think  this  -tra  weathers  to  -r  in 
lipier,  etc.  ;  -d,  probably  comparative,  ^  255  (Sansk.  samanti). 

-nan,  -nanne,  an  oblique  case  of  the  repeated  adjective  suffix  -na,  belong- 
ing to  (^  228,  2) :  Lat.  super-no-,  belonging  {super)  above  ;  whence  ab- 
lative adverb  super-ne,Uom  above  ;  belonging  to  and  coming  from  are 
near  akin,  but  the  lost  case-ending  gives  the  turn  to  from.  Goth,  in- 
nana,  within;  iitana,  without;  hindana,  behind,  etc.,  do  not  have  the 
plain  sense  from.  Pott  suggests  composition  with  a  preposition  (Let- 
tisch  no,  from).  Here  belong  cdst-an,  from  the  cast ;  pcst-an,  from 
the  west,  etc.  ;  also  ipft-an,  aft;  feorr-an,  from  far;  for-an,  before  ; 
hind-an,  from  behind  ;  inn-an,  within  ;  ncdn,  from  nigh  ;  ncod-an,  from 
beneath;   vf-an,  from  above  ;   tit-an,  from  out,  and  their  compounds. 

I 


130 


DERIVATION.— PREPOSITIONS  AND  PREFIXES. 


II.   Correlatives  of  Time 


Manner  : 

how  ;  thus  ;  so. 


when  ;   then  ;   now  ;   once. 

A.-S.  hpannc;  panne  {x,o,c)^  pa;  nu;  iu,gcu.  hu<^hpi;  pus,pxs;  spa. 

Goth,  hvan;  pan,  {O.K. G.  do;  nu;  ju,  giu.  huieo),hvdiva;  svah,  sve. 

Lat...  quum;  turn;  nunc  ;  jam 'C.Sa.nsk.  ja.  quo-modo;  tarn, ita;  sic,  ut. 

Gr....  TzoTt;  TOTt;  vv,vvv(Jii\ns\i.nu)\  ^lj<,(lja.  ttCjq;  rwc ;  <^e. 

hpannc,  accusative  masculine  ;  pd,  feminine  ;  hu,  hpi,  instrumental ;  pus, 
genitive,  <^  ppis,  or  instrumental  pu-{-s,  O.  Sax.  thiu-s  {\  133,  2); 
piKS,  genitive ;  spa,  Goth,  svc,  instrumental ;  the  endings  in  the  other 
languages  are  not  all  analogous. 

III.  Prepositions  =  adverbs  :  wflcr.  It,  for,  in,  mid,  on,  of,  to,  purh, 
under,  up,  ofer,  pid,  with  many  derivatives  and  compounds.  See  ^^  253- 
259. 

IV.  Derivatives  in  e,  denoting  rest  in,  probably  a  dative  :  Goth,  -a,  O. 
Sax.  -a,  O.  Nor.  -i,  O.H.G.  -a. 

inn-e,  within  ;   iit-c,  without ;    vfan-c,  over,  etc. 

V.  Comparatives  and  Superlatives.     ^^  123-129,  2. 


PREPOSITIONS  AND  PREFIXES. 

253.  —  L  Those  denoting  simple  relations  generally  take  their  signifi- 
cance from  a  single  consonant  {^  56).  Contrasted  space  relations  are  pri- 
marily denoted.  This  contrast  is  often  further  brought  out  by  endings  of 
comparison  {^^  122-129).  The  relation  is  sometimes  made  more  definite 
by  case-endings  and  other  suffixes.  Most  inseparable  prefixes  have  a  sim- 
ilar etymology. 

II.  Many  prepositions  and  prefixes  of  later  growth  are  from  nonns  or 
verbs,  and  have  an  etymology  like  adverbs. 


254.   Prepositions  and  prefixes  with  a  single  consonant. 
are  added  to  better  illustrate  their  etymology. 

1.  Semi-vowels.  Sanskrit.      Greek.  Latin.        Gothic.  O.  Sas. 

£-(£»),  privitive: ...   dvis^as?  t^9  ex?  see  or  ;  a-; 

or-=a: dvis^us?  ;         ;      us-';  ; 

ea-C,  besides : dva;  av-{TiQ);  ■ ;      du-h ;  v-h; 

pid,  against,  with :  z;j,  seeto;  ;         vi-,  ve^ ;  vi-pra ;  wi-ct; 

ne,  n-,  negative:  ..  na;  ft]-;  ne,  ne ;    ni;  ni,  ne ; 

an  (o«,  a-),  on : and;  avd;         an-;        ana;  an; 

and  (owrf,  tJt?),  an- :   dn-ti;  dv-Ti;       an-te;      an-d;  an-d;-t; 

in,  in,  on: and,  an-;    hn,  tv  ;     in;  in;  inna; 

un-(on),  un-: an-,  a-;       dv-,d-;    in-;         un- ;  un- ; 


A  few  others 

0.  Nor. 

O.  II.  G. 

er-  ; 

d  <  ar-. 

ur,  or-; 

ur-. 

au-k ; 

au-h. 

vi-d; 

wi-dar. 

ne ; 

ni,  ne. 

d; 

ana. 

an-d; 

an-t. 

inn,  5 ; 

in. 

U-; 

un-. 

PREPOSITIONS  AND  PREFIXES.  131 

Sanskrit.       Greek.  Latin.  Gothic.  O.  Sax.  O.  Nor.  O.  H.  Ger. 

mi-d,  witli : mi-thds;      ixe-Tci;  ;  mi-J) ;  mi-d ;  me-d;  mi-t(f). 

mis-,  mis-: akin  to  mid,  Goth,  wiisso,  mutually ;  missa-;  mis-;  miss-;  mis-. 

a- (<^,dj>a,o),  ever:  eva-s?         a'p"' ;  xvum;  div ;  eo;  ae;  eo. 

2.  Labials  (p,  b,  f ). 

up,  adv.,  up  : upa;  inro,  vTrip  ;  s-ub,  s-vper ;  iup ;  up;         upp ;     nf. 

bi  (6e,  fri^p),  be-,  by :   abhi;  -(pi;  (ti)-li ;  bi ;  bl,  be- ;  ;    pi. 

ymb(e), e?7t6(e),  about :  oMi;  dfitpi  ;  amb- ;  ;  umhi ;      um ;       umpi. 

of  (cT/^),  of,  off: dpa;  ctTto  ;  ab ;  of;  of;  of;        aba. 

for-,  for-(bid):  pd-rd ;  irapd,  irdp ;  per- ;  fra-;  f>w-i     fof-;    far-. 

for,  for: purds ;  TrdpoQ;         prx?  fadr;  fur(i);   fyr(i);furi. 

fore,  fore- :  purds;  Trdpog ;         por;  faura;  for[a);  for-;    fora. 

feor,  adv.  adj.,  far :  ^ara;  Tzkpa;  per-;  fair-ra;  fer;       farri;  fer. 

,   .     ,„    „^  ipdri ;  Trepi  ;  per-;  i  mixed;  probably  a  simulation  of  Lat. 

fr^-  (/red-),  very :  T        '  ,  '  "^       '  }  '  ^  a      4^  j-    "  fft  ai\  o\ 

\pra;  '^po;  pro,  prx  ;  )     pn'e  by  compounds  of/rea  Q§  40,  i5_;. 

fram,  from : pd-ra-ra;     irkpav;         jKren-;  fram;       fram;    fram;  fram. 

3.  Dentals  (t,  d,  ];>,  d,  s). 

aet,  at :  ddhi ;  (o-)^t  ;  ad;  at;  at;  at;  az. 

6(t,  unto :  ddhi?  ;  ;  and,und;  unt;  unz ;  unt-. 

to,  to: ddhi?  -ct;  ;  du ;  to,  te ;  ;  zuo,  zi. 

to-,  in  two:  (d)vi- (^  130,  2) ;  5id  ;  dis- ;  di-s-;  te- ;  ;  zeQ-^iZa^r), 

ut,  out : lit;  va-T£pog;  ;  nt ;  ut ;  tit;  uz. 

ed-,  back :  i-tara,  other?   ;  i-terum?  id-;  id-ur;  id-;  it-. 

burh,  through  :  ....  iirds ;  ;  trans;  pair-h;  ihurh ;  ;  durah. 

sam-,  together:  ...  sa-md' ;       liixa;  sim-ul ;  sama ;  sama ;  sam- ;  sama. 

sam-,  half:  sd-mi^;        >'//it- ;  semi-;  ;  sam-;  ;  sdmi-. 

sin-,  ever : sa-nd';         tvo-c ;  sem-(^per') ;     sin-(teins') ;  sin- ;  si-;  sin-. 

4.  Gutturals. 

ge-,  together :  {sd-)kdm?  Kuv?  cum,  co-?      ga-;  gi- ;         g- ;        ka-,  etc. 

ieg—d-i-ge,  ever :  .    0.  H.  G.  eo-ga  (§  13C,  5). 

(a.)  For  shifting  of  letters,  see  ^^  18,  19,  41 ;  for  precession  and  weather- 
ing of  endings,  ^  38.  a  <Car,  od'C.and,  ^  37 ;  ymbe  <^abhi,  and<Cddhi,  ^  27, 
5  ;  h  in  purh,  c  in  edc,  ^  133,  2,  a. 

(b.)  Most  of  the  Sanskrit  forms  look  like  vovirel  pronominal  bases  with 
suffixes  and  case-endings:  a-bhi,  a-pa"^  a-pa-ra'^  gen.  purds,  locative 
pari,  ace.  pdram,  instrum.  pdrd.     ^  62. 

255.    Comparative  Forms  :   er,  r,  ter,  der,  der,  d,  d.      ^^  122-129. 

of-er,  over ;  v?f-ter,  after ;  un-der,  under  ;   pi-der,  wither-(nam) ;   to-pi- 

dere,  against ;  ni-der,  neath ;  pi-d,  with  ;  mi-d,  with ;  fo-r,  for ;  fo-re, 

before  ;  f-rx,  very  ;  geon-d,  yond  ;  hin-d-an,  behind  ;  samo-d,  together. 

{b.)  The  above  are  formed  on  of;  xf ;  an>Sansk.  an{a)-tara;  pi;  ni, 

akin  to  in,  Sansk.  ani^ni,  down,  Gr.  tvt-poi,  O.  H.  G.  ni-dar ;  m.i<^ma; 

f—<Cpa;  gcon,  Goth.  jdins<Cja-na ;  kin  —  hcon{an)  (^252);  sam. 


132  PREPOSITIONS  AND  PREFIXES.— PARTICLES. 

256.  Superlative  m  (^  12G)  :  fra-rn,  from  ;  pdi-am,  Tripav,  percn-  seem 
to  be  accusatives,  and  in  so  far  not  analogous  to  from. 

257.  Adverbial  -an  (^252),  mostly  compounds:  be-,  b-,  pid-wfl-an ; 
for-an ;  wt-,  bi-,  on-,  to-,  pid-for-an  ;  geond-an ;  be-,  pid-geond-an  ;  be- 
heon-an ;  be-hind-an ;  inn-an ;  b-,  on-,  pid-inn-an ;  neod-an  ;  be-,  under- 
neod-an ;  uf-an ;  b-,  d-b-,  on-vf-an ;  upp-an  ;  on-upp-an ;  ut-an ;  b-,  on-b-, 
pid-,  ymb-ut-an  ;  English  before  ;  beyond  ;  behind  ;  within  ;  be-,  under- 
neath ;  above  ;  a-b-,  with-out. 

258.  From  Substantives,  mostly  compounds  with  prepositions:  to- 
edcan,  besides;  d-,  on-gegn,  to-gegnes,  against;  ge-mong,  on-gemong, 
among ;  on-efn  (German  n-eben),  even  with,  beside,  an-ent ;  in-middum, 
to-middes,  amidst ;  be-ipeon-um,  -an,  between  ;  be-tpeo-h-s,  be-tpeox,  be- 
twixt;  so  English  be-side<C5e  sidan;  Aov;xi<^d-dune,  from  a  hill;  a-loft 
(ShakespeareX o?i  lyfte,  in  the  air;   and  the  like,     hand-,  ^  267,11. 

259.  From  Adjectives  =  adverbs  (see  ^^  254,  229) :  &r,  ere  ;  feor, 
far  from  ;  ge-hende,  handy  to  ;  Ixs,  less  ;  nedh,  near,  nehst,  nedh-hand, 
nigh  to;  til  (Northumbrian),  to;  peard,  td-peard,  toward;  /"ana,  less;  ge- 
long,  and-long,  along;  n-efne,  n-emne  (compare  on-efn,  §  258),  except; 
5jrf(Iate),  since.  Prefixes:  eal-  (xl-,el-),  all;  efen-,  co- ;  ful-,  full;  mis-, 
mis- ;  sam-,  semi- ;  sin-,  ever  ;  pan-,  less  ;  pel-,  well. 


Particles  of  Interrogation,  Affirmation,  Negation. 

260.  Interrogation. — (a.)  Adverbial  forms  of  the  pronominal  A/>,  whose 
derivation  has  been  explained  :  hpxder,  hp&r,  hpider,  hpanan,  hpy,  hu,  and 
compounds,  ybr-A/am,  etc. 

Q).)  Intensives :  ne,  ^  254  ;   ac  {ach,  ah),  ^  262  ;   hu,  ^  252  ;   Id,  §  263. 
(c.)   Conjunctions  in  indirect  questions  :  gif,  if,  ^  262. 

261.  Affirmation  and  Negation. —  (a.)  From  relational  stems: 

gea,  ia,  yea.<ija  (^  107,  a) ;  Goth,  ja,  jai ;  O.  Sax.,  O.  Nor.,  O.  H.  G.  ia. 
ge-se,  yes  ;  gea-\--se<^si,  let  it  be. 

ne  (^  254),  n-a,  n-6,  nay,  no ;   Goth,  ne  div,  O.  H.  G.  ni-eo,  not  ever, 
ne-se,  like  gese  :  n-dn,  Ger.  n-em,  Lat.  n-on,  not  one ;  ncalles,  nalass,  nass 

(jie  ealles),  not  at  all ;  n-d-piht,  nbhl,  not  a  whit. 

(i.)  Regular  adverbial  forms  :  sodlicc,  pitodlice,  verily. 


DERIVATION.— CONJUNCTIONS.— INTERJECTIONS.        133 

262.    CONJUNCTIONS. 

In  their  formation  they  are  similar  to  prepositions. 

I.  From  relational  stems. —  (a.)  Not  before  explained: 

Sanskrit.        Greek.  Latin.  Gothic.       O.  Sax.       O.  Nor.    O.  H.  G. 

and,  ond,  and ;        {dti ;  in ;  et)  ?  ;       audi ;        ;    anti  (u). 

ano,  o«o,  an  =  if;    (<.ana);   dv;  an;  an;       O. H. G.  eno,  inM<a«+»«. 

gif,  if ;  ja-d  (Ja-pi) ;   tl ;  s-i ;  ja-bai ;     (ef;  ef ;        ibu). 

ac  (ch,  K),  but ;   (akin  to  edc,  §  254  ?)      ;  ak ;  ac ;  ;    oh. 

ge,  and  ;  (<  ja,  §  252 ;    Sr)  <  Sjd ;  ja-m) ;  ja-h ;       ja,  ja-c  ;  ok  ?       ioh. 

gyt,  ffeia,  yet ;   <^geo,  ^252;   ;  ;  ju-pan;     ;     M.  H.  G.  ie-ZMO. 

]3en-den,  whilst ;   compare  Latin  tan-dem ;  pan-de  ;    ;        ;    dan-ta. 

J)eah  (Peh),  though  ;   see  for  -uh  §  133,  2,  a ;  pa-uh ;      thoh  ;        po  ;        doh. 

octcte  ^ectda,  pe),  or;  utha,  but;  ;  ai ;  ip,  aip-pau;  ettha;      ecta;      eddo  (p-"). 

eac,  also;  sam,  samo-d,  as  well  as;  ne  —  ne,  neither  —  nor;  nu  —  nu, 

now — then,  have  been  given  with  adverbs  or  prefixes. 
and  may  be  akin  with  and<^anti  {^  254).     ano  is  all  doubtful ;  ja^ja- 
bai  and   i  >  Goth.  z-6a  =:  O.  H.  G.  i-Ju,  are   kindred   stems;   gif,0. 
Friesic  ^/e/",  Lithuania  j/ci- J,  go  with  ja-bat  (^^  107,  a;  63,^)  ;  ge  might 
be  ge-  (^  254)  ;  -den  in  pen-den,  -pan  in  ju-pan,  are  the  demonstrative 
ta  (^  104,  b)  ;  Goth.  7p  >  ed,  ap  >  od  is  akin  to  ed-  (^  254,  3  ;  38). 
{b.)  Many  other  pronominal  adverbs,  whose  etymology  has  been  explained, 
and  whose  meaning  and  use  belong  in  syntax  :   hu,  how ;  spa,  so ;  spxjlce, 
such;  pider,panan,pd,  py,  pe,  pjxs,  ponne,  pj&r ;  hpi-der,  ■vi\\\t\\ex  ;  hpx-der, 
whether ;  elles^  else  ;  O.  H.  G.  allis,  alies,  gen.,  Lat.  alias,  al-,  ^  216. 

II.  From  notional  stems,  a  few  oblique  cases  of  nouns. 

hplle,  hpil-um — hpilum,  sometimes — sometimes. 


263.  INTERJECTIONS. 
(1.)  Imitation  of  cries,  or   sound-gestures  :   ea,  ex,  eap,  oh;  pa, pea,  wo; 
Id,  lo;  ha,  ha;  hd,  ha;  compounds — ed-ld,  mixed  with  French  he-las  (Lat. 
lassus,  weary),  alas,  corrupt  alack  ;  pd-ld,  pd-ld-pd,  welaway,  corrupt  wel- 
aday,  etc. ;  hlg,  h'lg,  Lat.  o,  o,  iElfrc.  Coll. 

Somewhat  similar  quasi-words  are  wide-spread,  but  they  can  be  iden- 
tified only  when  steadied  by  true  words  formed  from  them  :  Greek  6a, 
oiiai,  Lat.  vcB,  Goth,  vdi,  O.  Sax.  toe,  Swed.  ve,  O.  H.  G.  we,  wo ;  O. 
H.  G.  we-la,  etc.     Such  words  were  doubtless  as  numerous  in  the  an- 
cient languages  as  in  English,  but  are  not  preserved  in  books. 
(2.)  True  words  used  as  cries  or  gestures  have  nothing  peculiar  in  their 
etymology  :  hpxl,  what ;  hu,how  ;  pel,  well ;  peg  ld=pel  /a, well  done,  etc. ; 
efne,  Lat.  cccc,  lo. 


134  COMPOSITION  or  WORDS. 

264.    COMPOSITION   OF  WORDS. 

Composition  proper  combines  word-stems  so  as  to  express  a  new  notion. 
Coalescence  is  the  running  together  of  whole  words  with  such  change 
of  accent  as  to  make  a  new  word. 

(a.)  Parasyntheta  arc  derivatives  from  compounds. 

Nouns. 

265. — I.  Form. — Nouns  final  in  compounds  retain  their  stems  and  end- 
ings: elsewhere  only  their  theme,  except  substantives  in  e<^ia,  e<^i,  and 
u(o):  ^um-a,  man  ;  gu?n-ci/n,  mankind  ;  eaW-/a'6?cr,  grandfather;  gryre, 
horror ;  gryre-hpil,  time  of  horror ;  lagu,  lake ;  lagu-flod,  river.  Coales- 
cence takes  place  of  prefixes  and  some  genitives  with  a  following  noun  : 
SsBternes-dseg,  Saturday;  Monan-dxg,  Monday;  Oxena-ford,  Oxford; 
dwges-ege,  daisy  ;  and-sparu,  answer  ;  un-treopd,  untruth  ;  un-pis,  un- 
wise, etc.     Words  with  quasi-suffixes  are  compounds  in  form.     §  229. 

266. — II.  Relation  of  Stems  to  each  other.  —  (1.)  Attributive 
(substantive  -j-  substantive)  — appositive  :  dc-ti-eo,  oak-tree  ;  ptf-man,  wo- 
man ;  compare  peop-boren,  born  a  slave  ;  descriptive  :  gdr-leac,  spear- 
leek,  garlick  ;  Aea/bt?-7nan,  head-man  ;  genitive:  god-spel,  God^s  mes- 
sage; (adjective -f  substantive) :  mid-da?g,  mid-da.y  ;  ncdh-bur,  neigh-hour. 
Adjective  parasyntheta  from  the  last  are  called  Possessives  :  clsbn-hcori, 
possessing  a  clean  heart ;  dn-hcnde,  one-handed  ;  dn-eage  and  dn-eged, 
one-eyed  ;   hxr-fot,  bare-foot,  bare-footed. 

(2.)  Objective. — (Substantive +noun,  between  which  an  accusative  end- 
ing or  preposition  would  express  the  relation) — accusative  :  man-cpellerc, 
man-killer  ;  ad-sparing,  oath-swearing  ;  blod-geole,  shedding  of  blood  :  gen- 
itive :  cear-ful,  full  of  care  ;  dative  :  god-lie,  like  to  God. 

(3.)  Adverbial  {noun  or  particle  +  adjective)  :  icl-meahtig,  all-mighty  ; 
manig-feald,  manifold  ;  blod-redd,  blood-red  ;  sndp-hptt,  snow-white  ;  un- 
cMne,  unclean  ;  {noun  or  particle  -\-  substantive) — space  relations  :  land- 
man, man  living  on  the  land,  farmer  ;  time  :  niht-hrirfn,  raven  flying  by 
night ;  cause  :  hand-gepeorc,  hand-iwork  ;  purpose  :  ort-geard,  orchard, 
yard  for  vegetables  ;  ealo-fxt,  vat  for  ale  ;  edg-sealf,  eye-salve  ;  with  an 
infinitive,  hpet-stdn,  stone  to  whet ;  prit-boc,  writing-book  ;  material :  stdn- 
peal,  wall  of  stone  ;   is-gicel,  icicle  ;  gold-smid,  worker  in  gold. 

{a.)  Attributive  compound  nouns  not  possessives  and  adverbially  com- 
pound adjectives  are  called  Determinatives. 

{b.)  Collectives  have  copulate  parts  :  per-polf,  man  and  wolf,  were- 
wolf; preo-tyne,  three  and  ten. 

267.   Vekbs. 
I.  For  the  terminations  springing  from  composition,  see  ^  160. 


FORIVIATIOX  OF  W0KD3  TO  EXi^EESS  GENDER.  I35 

II.  Verbs  with  proper  compound  stems  are  parasyntheta  from  compound 
nouns.     But  note  harid-sellan,  put  in  hand;  ful-fijllan,  etc.,  below. 

III.  Compound  verbs  are  directly  formed  by  coalescence  with  preposi- 
tions and  prefixes  :  ofcr-jieopan,  over'flow  ;  d-pacan,  a-wake  ;  mis-don, 
mis-do  ;  ful-fyllan,  fulfill ;  pel-don,  do  well ;   efen-peorcan,  co-operate. 

(a.)  For  prepositions  and  prefixes,  see  ^^  15,  254. 

{b.)  Composition  has  the  same  laws  throughout  the  Indo-European  lan- 
guages. In  some  of  them  so  many  of  the  stem-endings  conform  with  the 
most  common  one  that  it  comes  to  be  regarded  as  a  sign  of  composition 
(Gr.  -0-,  Lat.  -?-,Goth.  -a-) ;  traces  of  this  are  in  Anglo-Saxon  :  niht-c-gale, 
night-in-gale. 


FORMATION  OF  WORDS  TO  EXPRESS  GENDER. 
268. — I.  Animals. — A.  Words  with  pairs  of  endings  (Mobile)  : 
Masculine,  —  <  a  ;   a.<^an;   ere. 

Feminine,  —  <C ' »  G<^an  ;  e,  ige <C. ie <[ ian  ;  en <^ enni ;  estre. 
1.  ( — <Ca  and  — <C0)  umlaut,  ^  32:  gat,  -es,  g&t,  -e,  he-goat,  she-goat; 
meeg,  -es,  -e,  kins-man,  -woman  ;  pulf,  pylf,  he-,  she-wolf. — 2.  (a  and  e) : 
ass-a,  -e,  he-,  she-ass  ;  mdg-a,  -e,  kins-man,  -woman  ;  nef-a,  -e,  nephew, 
niece ;  r&g-a,  -e,  hart,  roe  ;  peop-a,  -e,  man-,  maid-servant ;  pebb-a,  -e, 
weaver;  picc-a,  -e,  witch  ;  pudup-a,  -e,  widow-er.  —  3.  ( — <^a  and  e, 
ige)  :  mearh,  merige,  mere,  myre,  horse,  mare  ;  hldford,  hldf{or)d-ige, 
lord,  lady. — 4.  (a  and  — <^i)  ■  han-a,  hen,  cock,  hen.  —  5.  ( — <^a  and 
en)  :  wlf,  -en,  elf;  fox,fixen,  fox,  vixen  ;  god,  gyd-en,  god-dess  ;  munec, 
-en,  monk,  nun  ;  Peop,  -en,  pegen,  pign-en,  pealh,  pyl-en,  servant ;  add 
manna,  mennen,  servant;  cdsere,  cdser-n,  emperor,  empress.  —  6.  (ere 
and  estre)  :  bxc-ere,  bxc-estre,  baker,  bakster  ;  hearp-ere,  -estre,  harper ; 
hopp-ere,  -estre,  dancer ;  red-ere,  -estre,  reader  ;  sang-ere,  -estre,  singer  ; 
sedm-ere,  -estre,  seam-ster ;  pebb-ere,  -estre,  weaver,  webster ;  fidcl-erc, 
-estre,  fiddler.  —  7.  (Relics):  gos  <^gans,  gandra  (^^  37;  41,  J;  50), 
goose,  gander;  cyning,  open  {-\/  cpan"^  cun^  cyn,  ^^  35,  32,  38,  24), 
king,  queen  ;  abbud,  -isse  (Lat.  abbatissa,  Gr.  -icaa),  abbot,  abbess  ;  speor, 
speger  (Goth,  svaihr-a,  -6,  Lat.  socer,  socrus,  Gr.  Uvp-vg,  -d,  Sanslc. 
^va^ura,  fvar.ru),  father-,  mother-in-law. 

B.  Compounds  whose  first  part  marks  sex,  last  part  gender : 

Masculine,  pxpncd,  p&p-,  pi&pcn-,  weaponed  ;  carl,  hysc,  man,  guma. 
Feminine,  ptf,  wife  ;  mingden,  maid  ;  cpen,  woman. 
piepned-man,  m.,  -beam,  n.,  cild,  n.,  -pifestre,  f.,  man,  boy,  hermaphrodite  ; 

hyse-cild,  n.,  boy;  man-cild,  n.,  man-child  ;  man-csnc,  m.,  man-servant; 

gum-man,  man  ;  gum-pegn,  man  ;  carl-cat,  m.,  -fugol,  m.,  tom-cat,  -bird  ; 

pif-man^^ pimman,  m.,  woman;   p\f-pegn,  m.,  servant;   ptf-freond,  m., 

friend;  m&den-cild,  n.,  -fxmnc,  f,  -man,  ni.,  female  child,  maid;   cpen- 


136  FORMATION  OF  WOKDS  TO  I-XFKESS  GKNDEK. 

fugol,  m.,  bird;    add  spcrc-healf,  f.,  spiiidl-hcalf,  f.,  spear-liair=  male 
side,  spindle-half  =  female  side. 

C.   Male   and  female   have   names  from   diflorcnt   roots.      Such  names 
abound  for  man  and  the  domestic  animals.     They  are  old  and  widespread. 
Man  :   guma,  per,  husbonda,  leod,  secg,  hxlc{d),  rinc,  bcorn,  carl ;   plur. 

Jirds;  feminine, /£'??nze,  ides,  bryd,f6stre,  mcople,  mwgcd,  msbg,  cpen; 

neuter,  beam,  cild,  child  ;  plf,  wife.     Pairs  of  kindred  :  fxder,  modor ; 

sunu,dohtar;  brodor,  spcostor;  eum,modrigc,\inc\e,Vim\i;  god-fxder, 

god-mudor. 
Horse:  hengcst,  stcda,fola;  feminine,  mcrihc.      Ox:  oxa,  steorc,  fearh, 

bulluca;  (em.  cu,keafre.    Sheep:  ram,peder;  fem.e6p{u).    Swine: 

bar,  eofor,  bearh;  fem.  sugu.      Goat:    bucca,  hxfer;   fem.  rdh,  rd. 

Deer:  heart,  m.,  hind,  f.     Dog:  hund,  m.,  bicce,  f.     Hen  :  coc,  m., 

hen,  f.      Bee  :   drdn,  m.,  beo,  f.      Neuter  :   hors,  picg,  liorse  ;    swm, 

swine;  m«/,  mule ;   </cor,  wild  beast,  deer ;    cea//,  calf ;   lamb;  scedp, 

sheep. 

Names  of  other  animals  are  epicene  (^  G7).  Neuter  names  of  young  ani- 
mals often  add  -ir-,  -er-  in  the  plural  :  cild,  cild-er-u,  child,  children 
{^  82).     Nothing  else  peculiar  in  the  formation. 

209.  —  II.  Things  without  Sex,  and  abstracts.  For  general  rules, 
^  67  (gender  of  the  endings,  ^^  231-23&).  It  is  often  not  easy  to  tell  how 
far  personification,  and  how  far  phonetic  laws,  determine  the  gender  (§  64, 
2).  The  same  object  often  has  names  of  different  genders  :  sx,  f.,  lago, 
m.,  brtm,  n.,  egor,  n.,  sea.  The  Teutonic  tongues  generally  agree.  But 
note  Neuters  (German  masculine)  mod,  mood,  muth;  tpig,  twig,  zwei"- ; 
pin,  wine,  wein  ;  (German  feminine)  clif,  cliff,  klippe  ;  ear,  ear,  dhre  ; 
fxsten,  fastness,  feste  ;  lie,  corps,  leiche  ;  s&d,  seed,  saat ;  sceorp,  scarf, 
schdrpe ;  pxpen,  wesipon,  waffe ;  pesten,  n.,m.,  waste,  wiistc ;  Masculines 
(German  feminine),  cr^if,  craft,  A-ra/f;  Zm5^,  lust;  tear,  tear,  zdhre ;  (Ger- 
man neuter)  ende,  end  ;  feld,  field  ;  here,  army,  heer  ;  sal,  cord,  seil ;  Fem- 
ININES  (German  masculine),  turf,  turf,  torf;  piht,  wight,  wicht ;  (German 
neuter)  blxd,  blade,  blatt ;  boc,  book,  buch  ;  Imlu,  health,  heil ;  heorle, 
heart,  herz ;  gcsihd,  sight,  gesicht. 

270. — III.  Derivatives  from  foreign  names  retain  their  gender,  except 
Feminines  >  masculines  :  ancor,  anchor  ;  Jox,  box-wood  ;  per  sue, 'peach; 
pistol,  epistle  ;  regal,  rule  ;  >neuters  :  nan,  noon  ;  NEUTERS>masculines  : 
balsam  ;  crcda,  creed ;  >feminines  :  ceasler,  city  ;  lilie,  lily  ;  palant,  palace  ; 
Limpane,  drum  1 


PART   III. 

SYNTAX. 

271.  Syntax  is  the  doctrine  of  grammatical  combinations  of 
tcords.  It  treats  of  the  use  of  the  etymological  forms  in  dis- 
course— their  agreement,  goyernmeut,  and  arrangement. 

SIMPLE    COMBINATIONS. 

272.  There  are  four  simple  combinations:  the 2^i'€dic' alive,  at- 
trih'utive,  objective,  and  adverbial. 

273. — I.  Predicative 

=^>io)ninative  substantive-]- agreeing  verb  • 
=inominative  substantive-]- agreeing lyredicate  noun ; 
z=nominative  substantive -{-jjredicate  adverb. 

gold  glisnad,  gold  glistens  ;   gold  is  heorht,  gold  is  bright ; 
JElfred  pses  cyning,  Alfred  was  king ;    ic  com  her,  I  am  here. 

(a.)  This  is  a  combination  between  a 
subject,  of  which  something  is  said  {^gold,  JElfred,  ic),  and  a 
predicate,  which  is  said  of  the  subject  {^glisnad,  heorht,  cyning,  lier). 

(b.)  Copula. — The  sign  of  predication  is  the  stem-ending  of  a  notional 
verb  (=a  in  glisnad),  or  is  a  relational  verb  (is,  pses,  com).  The  substan- 
tive verb,  when  so  used,  is  called  the  copula — a  good  name  for  any  sign  of 
predication.     Copulative  verbs  take  a  predicate  noun. 

(c.)  Quasi-predicative  is  the  relation  between  the  implied  subject  and 
predicate  in  a  quasi-clanse.     ^  278,  d. 

274. — II.  AXXrihutiw e=agrecing  7ioun-{- substantive; 

z=genitive  substantive-]- substantive. 

god  cyning,  good  king ;    JElfred  xdcling,  Alfred  the  prince ; 
Engld  land,  land  of  the  Angles. 

(a.)  This  combination  expresses  the  relation  of  subject  +  attribute  as 
taken  for  granted.     The  leading  substantive  is  called  the 

subject,  that  to  which  the  attribute  belongs  {cyning,  JElfred,  land) ; 
an  attributive  is  the  agreeing  adjective  {god),  or  genit.  substantive  {Engld) ; 
an  appositive  is  the  agreeing  substantive  {xdeling). 

{h.)  The  sign  of  this  relation  is  the  agreeing  case-endings,  or  the  attribu- 
tive genitive  ending,  or  a  preposition  {^  277,2). 


lo8  SYNTAX.— SIMPLE  COMBINATIONS. 

27o.  —  III.  Objective  =  verb  +  goveimed  noun. 

=  adjective  +  governed  noun. 

ic  hunlige  Jicortds,  I  hunt  harts  ;  he  stjld  him  hors,  he  sells  him  a 
horse  ;  gilpes  pu  gyrnest,  thou  wishest  fame  ;  psare  f&hde  he  ge- 
feah,  he  rejoiced  at  the  vengeance  ;  hi  macad  hme  {to)  cymnge, 
they  make  him  king  ;  hpi  scgst  pu  me  godne,  why  callest  thou  me 
good  1   bead  gemindige  Lodes  jnfcs,  remember  Lot's  wife. 

(a.)  This  combination  expresses  the  relation  of  an  act  or  quality  to  its 
completing  notional  object. 

Objective  verbs  or  adjectives  are  those  which  need  such  object  {hmtirjc,  etc.). 
Subjective  need  no  such  object  {ic  shvpc,  I  sleep). 
Transitive  verbs  have  a  suffering  object  (himtige,  si/Id,  macad,  etc.). 
Intransitive  have  no  suffering  object  {gyrnest,  gcfeah).  ' 

The  completing  object  may  be 
suffering  {— direct),  xin  accusative  merely  affected  {heortds,hors,hinc,me) ; 
dative  {^indirect  =^pcrsonal),  a  receiver  to  or  for  whom  is  the  act  {him) ; 
genitive,  suggesting  or  exciting  the  act  {gilpcs,  f&hde,  pifes) ; 
factitive,  a  product  or  result  in  fact  or  thought  {cyninge,  godnc). 

(b.)  The  sign  of  relation  is  the  case-ending  or  a  preposition. 

(c.)  Many  Anglo-Saxon  verbs  require  an  object,  when  the  English  by 
which  we  translate  them  do  not.  Many  objects  conceived  as  cxcitmp-  in 
Anglo-Saxon  are  conceived  as  suffering  in  English ;  many  as  merely  ad- 
verbial. 

{d.)  The  factitive  object  oflen  has  a  quasi-predicative  relation  to  the  suf- 
fering object,  agreeing  with  it  like  a  predicate  noun  {me -\- godnc).  Such 
clauses  are  nearly  equivalent  to  two  (why  sayest  thou  that  I  am  good?). 

276. — TV.  A6veYhidl=verb-\- adverb  ov  adverbial  phrase. 

—adjective^  adverb  or  adverbial  phrase. 
=adverb-\- adverb  or  adverbial  phrase. 

ic  gd  lit,  I  go  out ;  ic  singe  wlce  dcvg,  I  sing  each  day ;  pe  sprecad 
gepemmodlice,  we  speak  corruptly  ;  he  com  mid  pd  feemnan,  he 
came  with  the  woman  ;  mid  sorgum  libban,  to  live  having  cares ; 
hpi  fandige  ge  mm,  why  tempt  ye  me  ?  micle  md  man  is  scedpc 
betera,  man  is  much  (more)  better  than  a  sheep. 

(a.)  This  combination  is  between  an  act  or  quality  and  its  unessential 
relations.  The  most  common  relations  are  place  {ut),  time  {xlce  dceg), 
manner  {gepemmodlice),  co-existence  {mid  fxmnan,  mid  sorgum),  cause 
{hpi),  intensity  {micle,  md,  scedpe). 

{b.)  The  sign  is  an  adverbial  ending,  case-ending,  or  preposition. 

(c.)  The  adverbial  combination  is  given  by  Becker  as  a  subdivision  of 
tlie  objective,  h\xi  the  linguistic  sense  of  the  Indo-European  races  uniforn.iy 
recognizes  the  adverb  as  a  separate  part  of  speech. 


EQUIViVLENTS.— SENTENCES.  139 

277.  Equivalents  of  the  Noun  and  Adverb  in  the  com- 
binations : 

(1.)  For  a  Substantive  may  be  used  a  substantive  noun  or 
pronoim,  an  adjective  or  any  of  its  equivalents,  an  infinitive,  a 
clause,  any  icord  or  jihrase  viewed  merely  as  a  thing. 

(2.)  For  an  Adjective  may  be  used  an  adjective  noun  or  ^jto- 
noun,  an  article  (attributively),  a  ^Jar^^■c^/J»^e,  a  genitive  substan- 
tive, an  adverb,  a  preposition  loith  its  case,  a  relative  clause. 

(3.)  For  an  Adveeb  may  be  used  an  oblique  case  of  a  noun 
with  or  without  a  preposition,  a  2)^irase,  a  clause. 

SENTENCES. 

278.  A  Sentence  is  a  thought  in  words.    It  may  be 

declarative,  an  assertion,  indicative,  subjunctive,  or  potential ; 
interrogative,  a  question,  indicative,  subjunctive,  or  potential ; 
imperative,  a  command,  exhortation,  entreaty ;    a  species  of 
exclamatory,  an  expanded  interjection.     ^^  149-151. 

(a.)  A  clause  is  one  Jinite  verb  with  its  suhject,  objects,  and  all  their  at- 
tributives and  adjuncts.  Its  essential  part  is  its  predicative  combination. 
The  {grammatical)  subject  of  the  predicative  combination,  its  attributives 
and  adjuncts,  make  up  the  logical  subject  of  the  clause  ;  the  grammatical 
predicate  and  its  objects  with  their  attributives  and  adjuncts  make  up  the 
logical  predicate. 

(J).)  A  subordinate  clause  enters  into  grammatical  combination  with 
some  word  in  another  (principal)  clause  ;  co-ordinate  clauses  are  coupled 
as  wholes. 

(c.)  The  sign  of  relation  between  clauses  is  a  relative  or  conjunction. 

(f/.)  Quasi-clauses.  —  (1)  Injinitivcs,  participles,  and  factitive  objects 
mark  quasi-predicative  combinations,  and  each  has  its  quaai-clause.  (2)  /?j- 
tcrjections  and  vocatives  are  exclamatory  quasi-clauses. 

279.  A  Sentence  is  si7nple,  comjolex,  or  compound. 

280.  A  simple  sentence  is  one  independent  clause. 

T.  A  predicative  combination. 
Verb  for  predicate:  fiscerus fisciad,  fishers _/«5/i. 
Adjective  :    God  is  god,  God  is  good. 
Genitive  :    tol  C&sares  is,  tribute  is  Cxsars. 
Substantive  :   Cicdmon  pxs  leodpyrhta,  Ca;dmon  was  a  poet. 
Adverb  :  pe  sind  her,  we  are  here. 
Adverbial :   God  is  in  heofenum,  God  is  in  heaven. 
Subject  indefinite  :   {Ixit)  snipd,  it  snows  ;   me  Ji2/rst,  me  it  thirsteth. 


140  SENTENCES. 

II.  Clause  with  attributive  combination. 
Adjective  attribute  :  god  gold  glisnad,  good  gold  glistens. 
Genitive :  folccs  stcmn  is  Godcs  stcmn,  folk^s  voice  is  God's  voice. 
Appositive  :  pu  cildra  sind  ungeldirede,  we  children  are  untaught. 

III.  Clause  with  objective  combination. 
Direct  object :  Cxdmon  porhte  leodsangds,  Caedmon  made  poems. 
Dative  :  l&n  me  prthlafds,  give  me  three  loaves. 

Genitive  :  pxt  pif  dJdoh  drihtnes,  the  woman  laughed  at  the  lord. 
Factitive  :   Simoncm  he  ncmde  Petrum,  Simon  he  named  Peter. 

IV.  Clause  with  adverbial  combination. 
Place  :  ic  gd  ut,  I  go  out. 

Time :  ic  gd  ut  on  dxgred,  I  go  out  at  dawn. 
Manner :  se  cyning  scryt  me  pel,  the  king  clothes  me  well. 
Co-existence  :   mid  sorgum  ic  libbe,  I  live  with  cares. 
Cause  :    he  has  is  for  ci/lde,  he  is  hoarse  from  cold ;    se   cnapa  pypad 
oxan  mid  gadisene,  the  boy  drives  oxen  with  an  iron  goad. 

281. — V.  Abridged  complex  sentence.  Clause  containing  a 
quasi-clause.     §  278,  d. 

Infinitive  :   iaic  Us  sprecan,  teach  us  to  speak. 

Factitive  :   hpt  segst  Jm  me  godne,  why  callest  thou  me  (to  be)  good? 

Participle  (adjectival)  :  ic  hiehhe  sumne  cnapan,  pypendne  oxan,  I  have  a 
boy,  {driving)  who  drives  oxen;  (adverbial,  gerund),  Boetius  gebmd 
singende,  Boethius  prayed  singing ;  (absolute),  pinre  dura  beloccnre, 
bide  plnne  fxder,  thy  door  having  been  locked,  pray  thy  father. 

282. — VI.  Abridged  compound  sentence  (§  284).    Verbs>verb. 

Compound  subject :   he  and  seo  singad,  he  and  she  sing. 
Compoimd  predicate  :   he  is  god  and  pis,  he  is  good  and  wise ;  seo  lu- 
fud  hine  and  me,  she  loves  him  and  me. 

283.  A  complex  sentence  is  one  principal  clause  Avith  its 
suhordinatG  clause  or  clauses.  §  278,  b.  The  subordinate  may- 
be a 

Substantive  :   (subject),  is  sxgd  pxt  he  com,  that  he  came  is  said ;   (ob- 
ject), ic  pat  pxt  he  com,  I  wot  that  he   came  ;   (appositive),  ic  com  to 
pam,  pxt  he  peere  gefulpod,  I  came  for  this,  that  he  might  be  baptized. 
Adjective  :   slxf-crxft  is  seo  c£'g,  pe  psbrd  bocd  andgit  unlycd,  grammar 

is  the  key,  that  unlocks  the  sense  of  the  books. 
Adverb:   (place),  hpider  pm  geest,  ic  gd,  I  go  whither  thou  goest ;   (time), 
tc  gd  hpxnne  pu  gxst,  I  go  when  thou  goest;   (manner), /m  sprsece  spa 
spa  an  stunt  pif,  thou  spakcst  as  a  stupid  ivoman  speaks;  (intensity), 


FIGURES  OF  SYNTAX.  141 

heud  gleape  spa  nasdran,  be  wise  as  serpents  ;  leofre  is  hlehhan  ponne 
grwta7i,  it  is  better  to  laugh  than  cry ;  (cause  =  efficient,  motive,  means, 
argument,  condition  [protasis  to  an  apodosis],  concession,  purpose)  : 
hit  punrad  forpam  God  pilt,  it  thunders  because  God  wills;  paciad,for- 
pam  pc  ge  nyton  pone  dxg,  watch,  because  ye  know  not  the  day  ;  On- 
send  Higeldce,  gif  mec  hild  nime,  (protasis)  iftne  battle  take,  (apodosis) 
send  to  Higelac,  etc.  Co-existence  is  usually  in  an  abridged  participial 
clause  (^  281). 

284.  A  compound  sentence  is  a  number  of  co-ordinate 
clauses.     §  278,  b. 

Copulative  :   ic  gd  ut  and  ic  geocie  oxan,  I  go  out  and  I  yoke  oxen. 
Adversative  :  fyr  is  god  pcgn,  ac  is  frecne  fred,  fire  is  a  good  servant, 

but  is  a  bad  master;   ne  nom  he  md,pedh  he  monige  gescah,  he  took  no 

more,  though  he  saw  many. 
Disjunctive :   ic  singe  odde  ic  rwde,  I  sing  or  I  read. 
Causal:  forpy  ge  ne  gehyrad,  forpam  pe  ge  ne  synd  of  Gode,  therefore 

ye  do  not  hear,  {for  this  that)  because  ye  are  not  of  God. 

FIGURES    OF    SYNTAX. 

285.  A  complete  sentence  has  every  part  of  all  its  combina- 
tions expressed. 

A  normal  sentence  is  complete,  and  has  its  parts  expressed 
and  arranged  according  to  the  general  laws  of  the  language. 

Figures  of  Syntax  arc  deviations  from  the  normal  sen- 
tence. 

I.  Ellipsis,  omission.  This  may  be  of  a  conjunction  (asyn'deton),  of 
a  word  to  have  been  repeated  (brachyl'ogy),  of  a  verb  somewhat  like  one 
in  a  corresponding  clause  (zeugma),  of  the  latter  part  of  a  clause  not  to  be 
supplied  from  the  corresponding  part  of  other  clauses  (aposiope'sis).  See 
also  anacoluthon  (below.  III.). 

II.  Pleonasm,  too  many  words.  There  may  be  too  many  conjunctions 
(polysyn'deton),  two  nouns  and  a  conjunction  for  a  noun  and  attributive 
(hendi'adis). 

III.  Enallage,  substitution.  Of  one  part  of  speech  for  another  (anti- 
meri'a),  of  one  case  for  another  (hypal'lage),  of  a  different  scheme  of  con- 
struction for  the  one  in  which  a  sentence  begins  (anacolu'thon).  Syn'- 
esis  is  a  construction  according  to  sense  and  not  grammatical  form. 

lY.  Hyper'baton,  transposition.  Of  words  (anas' trophe),  of  clauses 
(hys'teron-prot'eron). 


142  USES  OF  THE  CASE-ENDINGS. 

USES  OF  THE   CASE-ENDINGS. 

Substantives. 

Agreement  of  Endings. 

2SG. — I.  Predicative  Combination. — \  predicate  noiui 

denoting  the  same  person  or  thing  us  its  subject,  agrees  with  it 

in  case. 

(rt.)  Also  in  gender,  if  it  varies  for  gender,  and  oftenest  in  number;  but 
copulate  singulars  and  a  plural  agree :  ic  com  peg,  I  am  the  way  (John, 
xiv,  6) ;  he  is  mm  sunu,  he  is  my  son  (Luke,  ix,  38) ;  he  and  seo  sind 
freondds,  he  and  she  are  friends.     Nouns  of  multitude  take  Synesis. 

(J).)  The  rule  applies  to  quasi-predicatives  (^  278,  d)  :  God  hit  pa  fxst- 
nisse  heofenan,  God  called  the  firmament  heaven  (Gen.,  i,  8).  But  pred- 
icate-accusative substantives  are  rare  in  Anglo-Saxon.  The  Latin  and 
Greek  accusative  +  infinitive  is  generally  represented  by  a  clause  with 
l)xt  (that),  and  the  factitive  depends  on  to  (to)  or  for,  as  does  often  the 
common  predicate  :  pu  pyrcst  pc  to  Gode,  thou  makest  thyself  (to)  God 
(John,  X,  33)  ;  me  pxron  mine  tedrds  for  hldfds,  to  me  my  tears  were 
(for)  hread  (Psa.,  xlii,  3). 

(c.)  The  rule  is  called  for  oftenest  in  clauses  having  the  verb  be  {eom, 
pesan,  beon),  become  (peordan),  stand,  lie,  etc.  (standan,  licgan,  etc.),  go, 
remain  {gdn,  punian),  seem,  prove  {pyncan,  profian)  ;  and  passives  of 
naming,  calling  {hdtan,  nemnan),  seeing,  thinking,  telhng  (seon,  tellan), 
making,  appointing,  choosing  {macian,  gesceapan,  gesettan,  geberan,  ge- 
ceosan,  etc.).  The  predicate  noun  is  oftenest  an  adjective:  pa  bedmds  d 
grcne  stondad,  the  trees  stand  ever  green  (C.  Ex.,  200,  4) ;  mm  cnapa  ltd 
lama,  my  boy  lies  lame  (Matt.,  viii,  6) ;  peos  poruld  puna.t gthdl,  this  world 
remaineth  whole  (St.  B.,  14)  ;  me  pxt  riht  ne  pynced,  to  me  that  seems  not 
right  (C,  289)  ;  leoht  pxs  dxg  genemned,  light  icas  called  day  (C,  129)  ; 
lytel  he  pxs  gesepen,  he  was  seen  (as)  little  (Horn.,  i,  138)  ;  he  pxs  blind 
acenned,  he  was  born  blind  (John,  ix,  20) ;  Saxulf  pxs  gecoren  to  biscop, 
Saxulf  it'a5  chosen  (to)  bishop  (Chr.,  656).     See  b. 

287. — II.  Attributive  Combination. — An  appositive 

agrees  in  case  with  its  subject. 

Often  also  in  gender  and  number.  It  is  an  undeveloped  adjective  clause, 
generally  marked  as  such  by  tone  and  punctuation ;  but  in  titles  it  some- 
times makes  with  its  subject  a  kind  of  compound  noun  in  English  (see  be- 
low, e)  :  pe,  cildra,  we,  (who  are)  children  (.^If.)  ;  seo  drpyrde  fxmne 
Ecgburh  abbodisse,  Aldpulfes  dohtor  pxs  cyninges,  sonde  pam  drpyrdan 
pere  Gudlace  leddene  pruh,  the  venerable  maid  Ecgburh  abbess,  Aldwulf's 
daughter  the  king('s),  sent  to  the  venerable  man  Guthl^'c  a  leaden  coffin 
(St.  G.,  18)  ;  Dryhten  sylf,  heofend  hcdhcyning,  the  Lord  himself,  heaven's 


APPOSITIVES.  143 

high  king  (And.,  6)  ;  pass  sum  his  scipes-man,  Jjces  foresprecenan  Adel- 
baldes,  there  was  one,  his  boatman,  the  aforesaid  Athelbald's  (St.  G.,  22) ; 
freondscipe  st  betpux  unc,  mc  and  pe,  friendship  be  betwixt  lis,  inc  and 
thee  (G.,  31,  44)  ;  pid  Blxdlan  and  Attilan,  Hund  cyningum,  against  Blcd- 
la  and  Attila,  kings  of  the  Huns  (Bed.,  1,  13) ;  spa  her  men  dSd,  geonge 
and  ealde,  so  here  men  do,  young  and  old  (C,  1206)  ;  ht  pegniad,  ielc. 
odrum,  they  serve,  each  the  others  (Met.,  25, 12).  The  appositive  is  some- 
times 
descriptive,  giving  kind,  condition,  etc.,  of  its  subject  (cildra,  abbodisse, 

dohtor,  cyninges,  hedhcyning,  scipes-man,  etc.,  in  examples  above)  ; 
definitive,  a  specific  name  after   a  general  description,  very  common  in 
Anglo-Saxon  {Ecgburh,  Gudldc,  Adelbaldes),  emphatic  {sylf).    {Repeat- 
ed Subject. — A  pronoun  +  a  name,  and  a  name -|- a  pronoun,  where  the 
seeming  attributive  is  really  a  repetition  of  the  subject  for  clearer  syntax, 
are  very  common  :  se  Hsblend,  he  fxste,  the  Saviour,  he  fasted,  St.  G.,  9) ; 
partitive,  giving  parts  of  its  subject,  or  its  whole  {me  and  Jw,  cyningum, 
geonge  and  ealde).    Examples  are  introduced  by  spa  spa  (Latin  ut,Ge,x- 
man  als)  :    sume  bead  langspeoredc,  spa  spa  spands,  some  (birds)  are 
long-necked,  as  swans  (St.  B.,  14)  ; 
distributive  {mlc). 

(a.)  Adjectives  are  often  appositives  {geonge  and  ealde),  so  pronouns. 

{b.)  Sentences  are  often  appositives,  oftenest  definitives  beginning  with 
pmt,  after  hit,  pxt,  ping,  or  the  like  indefinite  subject :  pwt  gelamp,  pvet 
pier  com  sum  man,  it  happened,  that  there  came  a  man  (St.  G.,  9) ;  hit 
(20) ;  pmg  (19). 

(c.)  Appositive  for  partitive  genitive  is  found  after  sum:  pd  cp&don 
sume  pd  bocerds,  then  quoth  so7ne  (of)  {the)  scribes  (Matt.,  ix,  3)  ;  sume, 
hi  comon,  some  (of  them)  they  came  (Mc,  viii,  3).  Rask  gives  tpegen 
marc  gold,  two  marks  (uf)  gold.  I  have  not  found  such  forms  in  Anglo- 
Saxon  ;  but  they  are  common  in  Old  English,  after  the  inflections  had  de- 
cayed (Lang.,  1, 174;  Ch.,7328).  So  German  masse  geld,  pfund  fleisch, 
etc.     The  reverse,  gold,  two  inarks,  is  in  Sanskrit,  and  down  to  English. 

{d.)  Genitive  for  appositive  of  material  or  place :  ceastra  Natzaredes 
for  ceastre  Nazareth,  i.  e.  City  of  Nazareth  :=  City  Nazareth.     ^  313. 

(e.)  Genitives  in  apposition  all  have  their  endings,  where  in  Old  English 
all  but  one  drop  it :  cyninges  Aldpulfcs  dohtor,  king('s)  Aldwulf's  daugh- 
ter.    See  above. 

(/.)  An  appositive  often  fails  to  agree  with  its  subject  from  anacoiuthon  : 
minum  hldforde  *  *  *  Alfpold  cyning  (nominative),  to  my  lord — King  Alf- 
wold  (St.  G.,  Pro).) ;  se  rica  and  se  hedna  *  *  *  ealle  hi  gelice  sc  stranga 
dead  forgriped,  the  rich  and  the  poor  (nominative)  —  all  these  alike  strong 
death  gripeth  (St.  G.,  19). 

{g.)  Number,  Note  cyningum,  xlc,  above.  After  a  dual  the  name  of 
the  second  person  is  used  alone  partitively  :  pit  Scilling  song  dhofan,  we, 
(T  and)  Scilling,  raised  a  song  (C.  Ex.,  324,  31) ;    nnc  Adarnc,  to  us,  (me 


144  NOMINATIVE.— VOCATIVE. 

and)  Adam  (C,  387)  ;   git  lohannis,  ye,  (thou  and)  John  (C.  Ex.,  467,  7). 
This  idiom  is  found  in  O.  II.  German,  is  common  in  O.  Norse. 

(h.)  Gender.  Synesis.  Substantives  agree  in  natural  rather. than  in 
grammatical  gender:  JElJldid, pxt  mivden, M^c<\,i\\c  maiden  (Hom.,ii,  150). 

Nominative. 

288.  Tlio  subject  of  a  finite  verb  is  put  in  the  nomina- 
tive. 

JEIfrcd  cjwd,  Alfred  said  ;    God  is  god,  God  is  good. 

(a.)  Nominative  independent.  The  subject  of  quasi-clauses  of  enun- 
ciation is  put  in  the  nominative.  Such  are  names  and  titles  containing  no 
predicative  combination  :  pwt  godspel  wfter  lohannes  gerecednysse,  the 
Gospel  according  to  John.     Anacoluthon,  ^  267, f.     Absolute,  ^  295. 

(b.)  Repeated  subject.     See  ^  287,  definitive. 

(c.)  Predicate  nominative.     See  ^  28G. 

(d.)  Attributive  nominative.     See  ^  287. 

(c.)  Factitive  object.  A  nominative  of  enunciation  is  often  used  in- 
stead of  a  factitive  object  after  verbs  of  naming,  calling,  and  the  like :  cli/- 
pode  God  his  gefylsta,  he  called  God  his  '■'helper''''  (Hom.,  2,  82) ;  hdtad 
hine  xfenstiorra,  they  call  it  "  evening  star'''  (Met.,  29,  30)  ;  ge  clypiad  me 
Lareop  and  Dryhten,  ye  call  me  "  Master"  and  "  Lord"  (John,  xiii,  13). 
This  use  of  the .  oratio  direcia  is  the  common  form  in  Sanskrit,  and  has 
doubtless  been  common  in  all  folkspeech.  It  is  in  the  Greek  of  the  New 
Testament ;  the  Latin  Vulgate  in  such  cases  uses  the  vocative,  as  does  the 
Greek  sometimes.  It  is  in  the  Gothic  (O.  H.  German  1)  and  M.  H.  Ger- 
man.    Compare  ^^  289,  t?;   294. 

Vocative. 

289.  A  compellative  is  put  in  tlie  vocative. 

Lareop,  sege  ponne.  Lord,  speak  then  (Luke,  vii,  40)  ;  ed  Id  geonga,  O 
young  man  (Luke,  vii,  14) ;  Id  pu  licetere,  thou  hypocrite  (Matt.,  vii, 
5) ;  hldford  cyning,  lord  king  (Ap.,  7) ;  Fssder  ure,  pu  pe  eart  on  heo- 
fenum.,  our  Father,  thou  that  art  in  the  heavens  (Matt.,  vi,  9)  ;  min, 
se  spelesta  sunnan  scima,  lulidna,  my  (the)  sweetest  sunshine,  Juli- 
ana (Ju.,  166) ;  Hcrra,  se  goda,  Lord,  the  good  (C.  (G.),  678). 

(a.)  A  compellative  is  the  subject  of  a  quasi-clause  of  address.  The  ad- 
dress may  be  formal,  a  simple  call,  or  an  emphatic  judgment  {pu  licetere). 
The  vocative  may  have  an  interjection  with  it,  or  not ;  it  may  enter  into  at- 
tributive combination  with  adjectives,  appositives,  clauses,  etc.  Note  the 
use  of  an  appositive  with  the  definite  article  :  Herra,  se  goda ;  min,  se  spe- 
lesta ;  and  compare  French  Monseigneur  Varchevesque,  etc. 

{h.)  The  weak  form  of  the  adjective  is  often  used  in  the  vocative  without 
a  definitive  :  leofa  Bevpulf,  dear  Beowulf  (B.,  1854). 


ACCUSATIVE.— IMPERSONALS.  145 

(c.)  Latin  vocatives  are  sometimes  used  :  Thaliarche,  Apolloni  (Ap.,  5, 
7,9). 

{d.)  Quasi-clause.  The  vocative  (with  or  without  attributives)  may  en- 
ter into  combinations  as  a  clause.  It  may  be  a  direct  object :  manige 
cpedad,  Dryhten,  Dryhten,  many  shall  say,  Lord,  Lord  (Matt.,  vii,  22)  ; 
factitive  object :  hpi  clyptge  ge  me  Dryhten,  Dryhten,  why  call  ye  me 
Lord,  Lordi  (Luke,  vi,  46).     Compare  ij  288,  e. 

(e.)  The  native  grammarians  in  Sanskrit  do  not  separate  the  vocative 
from  the  nominative,  but  think  it  a  slightly  modified  form  for  address.  Its 
syntax  is  nearly  the  same  in  all  our  languages. 

Accusative. 

290.  Objective  Combinations.  — l.  The  direct  object 

of  a  verb  is  put  in  the  accusative.     It  may  be 

I.  A  material  object  moved,  hit,  or  changed,  or  produced  as  an  effect, 

by  a  transitive  verb  :  pone  maddum  byred,  he  bears  the  treasure  (B., 
2055)  ;  stormds  stdnclifu  beotan,  storms  beat  cliffs  (Seaf.,  23)  ;  ic 
dhyrde  heortan,  I  will  harden  his  heart  (Exod.,  iv,  21) ;  scip  pyrcan, 
to  build  a  ship  (C,  1302).     {Mddm^ maddum,  Orm.  maddmess.) 

(a.)  Persons  and  abstractions  may  also  be  conceived  as  material  objects 
of  act  or  thought :  se  pxt  picg  byrd,  he  whom  that  horse  bears  (EL,  1196) ; 
ic  here  dryhtnes  domds,  I  bear  the  lord's  commands  (D.,  744). 

{b.)  Transitive  verbs  express  an  exercise  of  the  appetites  (eat,  drink, 
etc.),  the  senses  (see,  hear,  etc.),  the  sensibilities  (love,  hate,  etc.),  the  in- 
tellect (know,  think,  etc.)  ;  movements — moving  an  object,  or  keeping  it 
from  moving  (set,  lay,  raise,  carry,  heave,  have,  hold,  marry,  catch,  take, 
give,  lead,  throw,  drive,  call  forth,  send  forth,  speak,  etc.),  hitting  or  moving 
towards  it  (strike,  follow,  etc.),  changing  its  form  or  condition  (break,  tear, 
harden,  cover,  sprinkle,  etc.),  making  an  object  (do,  make,  work,  build,  etc.), 
causative  acts.  Verbs  expressing  these  notions  as  affecting  the  whole  of  a 
material  object  govern  the  accusative  throughout  the  Indo-European  tongues. 

(c.)  Persons  may  be  conceived  as  suffering  objects  of  their  appetites. 

Impersonals  of  appetite  or  passion  govern  an  accusative 

of  the  person  suffering. 

Me  Pyrste,  it  thirsted  me  =  I  suffered  thirst  (Matt.,  xxv,  35);  me  hin- 
grede,  I  suffered  hunger  (Matt.,  xxv,  35)  ;  hine  lystc,  it  listed  him=: 
he  suffered  list  (B.,  1793)  ;  mcc  longdde,  I  longed  (Kl.,  H) ;  me  dpryt, 
it  irks  me,  dpreotan  pegn  (Sch.,21) ;  us  pldtud,we  loathe  (Num.,  21, 5). 
So  hreupan,  rue  (C,  1276)  ;  gcmxtan,  dream  (D.,  122) ;  eglian,  ail  (?) 
(Bosworth,  Elt.  their  example  a  mistake)  ;  tinclan,  tickle  (?),  it  tikeleth 
me  (Chaucer,  C.  T.,  6053).  Koch  says  passives  of  these  impersonals 
take  an  accusative ;  so  Groin,  his  mandryhten  (ace.)  gemsbted  peard 

K 


146  KEFLEXIVKS.— COGNATES.— TWO  OBJECTS. 

(D.,  157) ;  but  dryhtcn  is  nom., "  his  lord  (was)  had  dreamed  ;"  so  pxs 
monig  gelystcd  (Met.,  1,9)  ;  ic  pxs  ofpyrstcd  (Seel.,  40)  ;  ic  eom  of- 
longCid  (Kl.,29)  ;  no  accusatives  found. 
{d.)  Reflexives. — Many  verbs  may  take  an  accusative  of  the  reflexive  pro- 
noun :  liinc  sylfne  dhcng,  he  hung  himself  (Matt.,  xxvii,  5)  ;  upende  hine 
sylfne  to  Gode,  he  turned  himself  to  God  (Chr.,  1067).  Sylf,  self,  is  not  fre- 
quent in  early  Anglo-Saxon.  Some  verbs  get  to  have  a  reflexive  sense 
without  the  pronoun  :  he  gehealh  hine,  he  swelled  himself^  he  was  wrathful 
(Luc,  XV,  28)  ;  ge  helgad,  ye  are  wrathful  (John,  vii,  23) ;  he  icpohte  hine, 
he  bethought  him  (Luc,  xv,  17)  ;  guist  hine  fysed,  the  spirit  hastens  (it- 
self) (Ex.,  178,  7) ;  ic  me  resLe,  I  rest  me  (Ex.,  494,  8) ;  resle  pxt  folc  hit, 
the  people  rested  (itself)  (Exod.,  xvi,  30)  ;  gegadorode  micel  folc  hit, 
much  people  gathered  itself  (Chr.,  921) ;  parniad  cop,  beware  (yourself) 
(Matt.,  vii,  15)  ;  pene  pec,  wont  thee  (Fath.,  62)  ;  se  H&lend  lepende 
(hine),  the  Saviour  went  (him)  (Matt.,  ix,  22;  Mc,  v,  30).  In  Sanskrit 
the  reflexive  is  incorporated  with  the  verb,  and  makes  a  middle  voice  (^  150, 
fl).  So  in  Greek,  but  not  in  Latin.  Traces  of  the  middle  are  found  in 
Gothic,  but  in  the  main  it  and  the  other  Teutonic  tongues  work  like  the  An- 
glo-Saxon. Intransitives  take  a  dative  reflexive,  as  do  some  of  the  above 
sometimes.     See  ^  298,  c. 

291. — IL  A  definitive  object  repeating  more  specifically  the  notion 
of  the  verb  :   (cognate  accusative),  dcmad  rihtne  dom,  judge  righteous 
judgment  (John,  vii.,  24)  ;    (more  specific),  sang  hildcleod,  it  sang  a 
war-song  (Jud.,  211). 
(a.)  The  verb  may  be  transitive  or  intransitive. 

{b.)  The  simple  cognate  alone  is  tautological.  An  adjective  +  definitive 
=  adverb.  The  transition  from  the  effect  to  the  cognate  is  easy,  and  is  al- 
ready made  in  Sanskrit.  The  definitive  has  a  widely  extended  use  in  Greek, 
and  in  German  and  English  is  co-ordinate  in  importance  with  the  material 
object. 

292.  Double  Object. — Some  verbs  of  asking  and  teach- 
ing may  have  two  accusatives,  one  of  a  person  and  the  other 
of  a  thing. 

(a.)  So  in  Sanskrit,  Greek,  Latin,  Gothic,  O.  H.  German,  etc. 

{b.)  Asking.  Verbs  of  asking  may  have  the  second  object  cognate  (ask 
him  questions),  exciting  (ask  him  z.  favor)  or  (ask  him  about  Vishnu).  The 
third  form  is  the  common  one  in  Sanskrit ;  the  first  and  second  in  Greek, 
Latin,  O.  H.  German  :  hig  hine  ne  dorston  &nig  ping  acsian,  they  durst  not 
ask  him  any  question  (Luke,  xx,  40)  ;  hig  hine  pxt  bigspel  dcsodon,  thej^ 
asked  him  about  the  parable  (Mc,  iv,  10)  ;  hi  hine  bissen  gefrugnum 
(same,  vii,  17,  Northumbrian) ;  spa  hpcet  spa  heo  hine  bsbde,  whatever  favor 
she  might  ask  him  (Matt.,  xiv,  7).      This  construction  is  rare  in  Anglo- 


SUBJECT  ACCUSATIVE.— FACTITIVES.  147 

Saxon;  generally  we  have  accusative  of  person -}- genitive  of  thing  (+ da- 
tive of  person  for  whom) ;  or  (2d)  ace.  of  pers.  -{-  infinitive  (or  clause) ;  or 
(3d)  ace.  of  pers.  -\-ymbe,  be,  icfter  (concerning),  and  an  ace.  of  thing  ;  or 
(4th)  the  person  follows  to  or  cet,  the  thing  is  an  ace.  or  gen. 
'  (c.)  Teach  is  a  causative  of  learn  in  Sanskrit  ^iks'aja.  Causatives  gov- 
ern an  accusative  +  the  case  of  the  included  verb  :  ne  meahton  pe  gelxran 
leqfne  peoden  r&d  Anigne,  we  might  not  teach  the  dear  lord  any  counsel 
(B.,  3079).  Tt&can,  teach,  takes  the  accusative  of  thing  +  dative  of  person. 
((/.)  The  passives  seem  not  to  take  an  accusative  in  Anglo-Saxon,  as  they 
do  in  Greek,  Latin,  English,  etc. 


293.  Quasi-predicative  Combinations.  — I.  The  sub- 
ject of  an  infinitive  is  put  in  tbc  accusative. 

Secgnd  hine  libban,  they  say  that  he  lives  (Luke,  xxiv,  23) ; 
geseah  stream  ut  brecan,  he  saw  a  stream  break  out  (B.,  2546). 

(a.)  This  accusative  is  grammatically  the  object  of  the  preceding  verb; 
but  after  verbs  of  perceiving  and  declaring,  ivishing  and  expressing  a  wish, 
and  some  others,  the  logical  object  is  the  infinitive  clause,  and  grammarians 
use  this  rule.  Cases  to  which  it  applies  are  not  found  in  Sanskrit,  have  a 
wide  range  in  Greek  and  Latin,  are  rare  in  Anglo-Saxon.     See  ^  286,  b. 

294. — II.  A  predicate  noun  denoting  the  same  person  or  thing  as  its 
subject  agrees  with  it  in  case  (^  286) :  pe  pitun  pe  bilepitne  pesan,  we 
know  thee  to  be  gentle  (iElfc).  Under  this  rule  come  some 

Factitives.  —  {a.)  Some  verbs  of  making,  naming,  re- 
garding may  have  tvm  accxisatives  of  the  same  person  or  thing. 

He  his  englds  ded  xdclc  gdstds,  he  makes  noble  souls  his  angels  (Psa., 
ciii,  5) ;  seo  ea,  pa  per  as  Eufrdtin  nemnad,  the  river,  which  men 
name  Euphrates  (C,  234) ;  tocneopon  Crist  sodne  man,  they  recog- 
nized Christ  as  a  true  man  (Hom.,  i,  106) ;  hi  hine  purdudon  sodne  God, 
they  worshipped  him  as  true  God  (Hom.,i,  108). 

{b.)  Verbs  of  making,  naming,  regarding,  perceiving,  finding,  having,  leav- 
ing, and  the  like,  may  take  an  accusative  adjective  as  a  factitive  object. 
For  Anglo-Saxon  verbs,  see  passives  in  §  286,  c. 

(c.)  Verbs  of  making  (choosing,  etc.)  in  Sanskrit  may  have  two  accu- 
satives, but  usually  the  factitive  is  a  locative.  So  in  Anglo-Saxon  it  is  usu- 
ally construed  with  to  or  for.     See  ^  286,  b. 

{d.)  Verbs  of  naming.     See  ^  288,  e. 

(e.)  Verbs  of  regarding  have  two  accusatives  in  Sanskrit  and  after. 

(/•)  When  the  factitive  is  in  the  accusative,  it  is  drawn  into  agreement 
with  its  quasi-subject,  the  direct  object  of  the  verb. 


148  DATIVE.— OBJECTIVE  COMBINATIONS. 

295.  Adverbial  Combinations.  —  The  extent  of  time 

and  space  is  put  iu  the  accusative  after  verbs, 
(a.)  So  in  Sanskrit,  Greek,  Latin,  Gothic,  etc. 

H.vfdon  siimne  dxl  pegcs  gefarcn,  they  had  gone  some  part  of  the  way 
(Gen.,  xliv,  4) ;  ealle  niht  sjnncendc,  all  night  toiling  (Luc,  v,  5). 

(b.)  Excess  of  measure  (dative) :  dnne  stxpe  furdor,  one  step  further  (Jos., 
X,  12) ; — instrument:  grws  ungrene,  not  green  with  grass  (C,  117,  812) ; — 
absolute  :  d.rg  scridende,  day  dawning  (Gu.,  1011  ;  C.,  183,  nom.  abs.  ?),  ^ 
304,  d.     Milton's  me  overthrown  (Sam.  Ag.,463)  is  classic  affectation. 

(c.)  The  accusative  is  used  with  prepositions  to  denote  an 
object  tovrards  which,  or  to,  on,  or  over  which  an  action 
extends.     For  examples,  see  Prepositions. 

Dative. 
29G.  The  dative  ia  Anglo-Saxon  denotes  relations  of  four  old 
cases : 

1.  Dative,  the  person  to  whom  something  is  given,  or  for  whom  some- 
thing is  or  is  done. 

2.  Instrumental,  that  with  which  an  act  is  done  or  associated. 

3.  Ablative,  that  from  which  something  is  separated  or  distinguished. 

4.  Locative,  the  time  or  place  in  which. 

Objective  Comhinatio7is. 

297.  An  object  of  influence  or  interest  is  put  in  the  da- 
tive. 

I.  Object  of  Influence,  the  person  to  whom  something  is  given.  The 
giving  may  be  figurative ;  material  objects  or  abstractions  may  be  con- 
ceived as  persons.  The  object  given  may  be  expressed  as  an  accusa- 
tive, or  implied  in  the  governing  word. 

{a.)  This  dative  is  oftenest  found  after  verbs  of 

giving  (paying,  offering,  loaning,  etc.)  :  calle  pas  ic  sylle  /c,  all  these  I 
give  thee  (Matt.,  iv,  9);  so  gifan,  forgifan.,  l&nan,  Icanian,  agyldan, 
geunnan,  tidian,  onlihan,  pyrnan,  forpyrnan,  etc.  ; 

address  =  giving  words  (say,  bid,  forbid,  answer,  thank,  chide,  judge,  prom- 
ise, advise,  etc.)  :  ic  secge  pe,  I  say  to  thee  (Matt.,  xvi,  18) ;  so  cydan, 
bebeodan,  command,  f or beodan,  ansparian, pancian,  cidan,  deman,  reedan ; 

gesture  :  bedcnian,hec]ion,  bugan,  bow,  hnigan,  lutan,  stupian,  odypan,  etc. ; 

obeying  =  giving  thought  (listen  to,  obey,  follow,  etc.)  :  hig  hlyston  him, 
let  them  listen  to  them  (Luc,  xvi,  29) ;  that  ■which  is  obeyed  is  often 
conceived  as  personal :  minum  Idrum  hyre,  hear  to  my  precepts  (C,  105, 
8);   so  gehyrsumian,fylgian,heorcnian.     So  exciting  thought  (seeming. 


DOUBLE  OBJECT.  149 

etc.)  :  manegum  men  pyncd,  it  seems  to  many  a  man  (Boet.,  29, 1)  ;  me 
pyncd,  methinks  (Boet.,  33, 1),  etc. 
giving  feeling  (pity,  mourn,  honor,  trust,  etc.)  :  gemiltsd  minum  suna, 
(give)  pity  (to)  my  son  (Matt.,  xvii,  14) ;  dra  pinum  fader,  (give)  honor 
(to)  thy  father  (^If.  L.,  1,  4)  ;  so  besdrgian,  treopian,  treopsian,  gely- 
fan.  Here  also  giving  ^^  exciting  (please,  soothe,  still,  etc.) :  pam  folce 
gecpeman,  to  please  the  people  (Mc,  xv,  15);  so  stillan,  oleccan,  and 
impersonals  :  him  ne  sceamode,  it  did  not  shame  him  (Gen.,  ii.,  25)  ; 
ofpuhte  (Sat.,  247)  ;  langad  (B.,  1879),  etc. 
giving  aid  (help,  serve,  defend,  injure,  etc.)  :  pu  monegum  helpst,  thou 
helpest  many  (Hy.,vii,  44) ;  heo  him  penode,  she  ministered  to  them  (Mc, 
i,  31)  ;  so  fremian,  peopian,  derian,  fylstan,  styran,  chastise,  etc.  :  hi 
me  pd  dydan,  they  did  me  woe  (Psa.,  cxviii,  138) ;  do  pel  pdm,  do  well 
to  those  (Psa.,  cxxiv,  4). 

{b.)  Adjectives  of  the  above  senses,  especially  of  thought  and  feeling: 
dniim  gehyrsum,  obedient  to  one  (Matt.,  vi,  24)  ;  getrype  hldforde  minum, 
true  to  my  lord  (^Elfrc)  ;  pam  bisceope  cud,  known  to  the  bishop  (John,  xviii. 
15) ;  leof  Gode,  dear  to  God  (C,  xvi,  17) ;  fremde,  strange  (B.,  1691). 
-  (c.)  Some  of  these  words  may  take  a  genitive  of  the  non-personal  ob- 
ject :  hlyst  his  pordd,  listen  to  his  words  (Nic,  3)  ;  or  even  of  a  personal 
object ;  so  hclpan,  gelyfan,  pidsacan,  pancian,  treopian,  miltsian,  gefeon, 
sceamian,  etc.  See  under  Genitive.  The  notion  of  the  verb  may  be  con- 
ceived as  given  to  the  object,  or  as  had  as  belonging  to,  or  excited  by 
him,  e.  g.  gelyfan  =:give  confidence  to  him  (dative)  or  have  confidence  in 
him  (genitive)  ;  helpan^=give  help  to  him  or  be  his  help.  In  Sanskrit  the 
ijenitive  may  be  used  for  most  datives  of  this  kind.  The  early  Greek  has 
much  of  the  same  freedom.  The  Latin  is  more  fixed  than  the  Gothic,  O. 
II.  German,  or  Anglo-Saxon. 

{(l)  Double  Object.— Verbs  of  granting,  refusing,  and 
thanking  may  take  a  dative  and  genitive. 

Ic  /cores  pe  unnan  pille,  I  will  grant  (to)  thee  (of)  life  (Ex.,  254,  4)  ;  so 
onlihan,  pyrnan,  tidian;  me  pxs  forpyrnde  paldend,  the  lord  refused 
me  that  (C,  2219) ;  pancian  his  dryhtne  pxs  lednes,  to  thank  his  lord 
for  the  gift  (C,  257).     Sec  under  Genitive. 

298. — II.  Object  of  Interest,  the  person  for  whom  something  is  or  is 
done. 

(a.)  Dative  of  advantage  or  disadvantage  (verbs) :  bxd  him  hldfds 
pyrcan,  bade  make  loaves  for  him  (Sat.,  673)  ;  polde  hire  bur  dtimbran, 
wished  to  build  a  bower /or  herself  (R.,  30, 5) ;  him  hedhcymng  pif  dpeahlc, 
for  him  (Adam)  the  high  king  a  wife  raised  up  (C,  172) ;  (adjectives)  : 
pe  is  hetcre  pxt  an  pinrd  limd  forpeorde,  it  is  better  for  thee  that  one  of 
thy  limbs  perish  (Matt.,  v,  29) ;  nyttre  him  pxrc,  it  would  be  better  for 
him  (Luc,  xvii,  2). 


150  ASSOCIATION.— SLA.STERY. 

(b.)  Dative  of  Possessor:  him  pxs  gepcald,  to  him  was  (=:he  had) 
power  (Cri.,  2:28)  ;  pivin  nc  bijct  ndncs  godes  pana,  to  them  is  lack  of  no 
good  (Psa.,  xxxiii,  9) ;  Gode  st  puldor,  to  God  be  glory  (Luc,  ii,  14) ;  pa. 
byd pam,  woe  is  to  him  (Ex.,  444,  25) ;  so  after  interjections:  pd  pdm 
men,  woe  to  the  man  (Matt.,  xviii,  7) ;  pel  pxre  hcordc,  well  for  the  herd 
(LetT.  Cnut.,  ii,  84,  2).  A  favorite  in  Greek  and  Latin  ;  not  so  in  Teutonic. 
The  Sanskrit  thus  uses  a  genitive.    A  second  dative  takes  a  preposition. 

(c.)  Reflexive,  after  verbs  meaning  take  :  nim  JjS  pis  ofivt  on  hand, 
take /or  ihcc  this  fruit  in  hand  (C,  518)  ;  be,  remain,  etc.  :  p&ron  him  on 
Cent,  they  were  for  themselves  in  Kent  (Chr.,  1009) ;  beod  eop  stille,  be 
still  for  yourselves  (Exod.,  xiv,  14) ;  so  stijd,  stood  (Gen.,  xviii,  8) ;  ScVt, 
sat  (Gen.,  xxi,  16),  etc. ;  move,  go,  etc. :  gepdt  him,  he  departed /or  him- 
self =he  was  off  with  himself  (C,  2884);  so  cyrde  (Chr.,  1016)  ;  ferdc 
(1009)  ;  tr.vd  (B.,  1881)  ;  gd  (An.,  1350)  ;  hpearf  (C,  447)  ;  sometimes 
pe7idc  (Chr.,  1010  ;  ^  290,  d)  ;  fear,  etc.  :  ondrcd  he  him,  he  feared  for 
himself  (John,  xix,  8)  ;  so  with  pile,  wish  (Ex.,  450,  18)  ;  piste,  knew  (C, 
445)  ;  hleodrede  (Ex.,  185,  3)  ;  hvcfde,  had  ;  gehjfcd,  believeth  ;  pcaxan, 
grow,  etc.  (Grein,  s.v.).  These  are  substitutes  for  the  middle  voice.  See 
^  290,  d.  Many  of  them  resemble  the  ethical  dative.  Most  would  be  ex- 
pletive in  English. 

299.  Association. — "Words  of  nearness  and  likeness 
govern  the  dative. 

He  pam  huse  genedhlwhte,  he  came  near  to  the  house  (Luc,  xv,  25) ; 
gelic  pdm  leohtum  steorrum,  like  the  bright  stars  (C,  17,  7). 

(a.)  Here  belong  some  words  of  meeting,  association,  contention,  and  the 
like  ;  of  bringing  near,  receiving,  touch  ;  of  imitation,  agreement,  etc. : 
geefenl&can,  pidstandan,  forstandan,  pidpinnan,  tidan,  hrinan,  onfon; 
impersonals  :  hit  Itcdde  He'rode,  it  was  suited  to  Herod  (Matt.,  xiv,  6) ; 
so  becyme,  becometh  (Mc.  (D.),  xiv,  31)  ;    gedafenad  (Luc,  iv,  43) ; 
gerised  (Ex.,  1,  5)  ;  gebyrdd  (John,  x,  13). 

(J.)  This  relation  takes  the  instrumental  (or  genitive,  nearness  sometimes 
the  locative)  in  Sanskrit ;  the  dative  in  Greek,  Latin,  Gothic,  etc.  Some 
of  the  words  may  govern  in  other  relations  an  accusative,  genitive,  or  in- 
strumental :  hrinan,  onfon. 

300.  Mastery  (use). — The  instrumental  or  dative  may- 
denote  an  object  of  mastery: 

pdm  p&pnum  pealdan,  to  have  power  over  the  weapons  (B.,  2038) ; 

Py  ponge  pealdan,  to  have  the  mastery  of  the  field  (Gfith.,  674)  ; 

peold  Hunum,  ruled  the  Huns  (Wid.,  18) ;  /y  rice  r&dan,  to  rule  the 
realm  (Dan.,  8,  688).  Ruling  may  be  conceived  as  transitive,  or  as 
giving  law  or  direction  to  a  dative,  or  as  being  master  of  a  genitive, 
or  as  being  strong  by  means  of  an  instrumental:  pealdan^  iZngVish 


ADVERBIAL  COMBINATIONS.— INSTRUME^'TxiLS.         151 

wield  governs  the  dative  in  Gothic  and  O.  Norse,  the  genitive  in  0.  H. 
German,  in  Anglo-Saxon,  like  Latin  potior,  the  ace,  gen.  (dat.),  instr.  ; 
rMan  governs  the  gen.  in  0.  Saxon  and  M.  H.  German,  in  Anglo-Saxon 
often  the  instrumental  or  dative,  the  dative  elsewhere  ;  brucan  (Lat. 
fruor),  use  (Bed.,  4,  19) ;  neutan,  use  (An.,  811),  take  the  ace,  gen., 
instr.,  dat. 

301.  Separation.  —  Some  verbs  of  separation  may  take 
an  object  from  which  in  the  dative  or  instrumental. 

(a.)  Transitive  verbs  of  this  kind  take  an  accusative  +  a  dative:  7nec 
bescyrede  eallum,  he  deprived  me  of  all  (Rid.,  41,  101)  ;  passive  :  scyl- 
dum  bescyredne,  deprived  of  shields  (Mod.,  8)  ;  -(-  instrumental :  lit  rihte 
benrnman,  to  rob  them  of  their  right  (C,  129,  32) ;  hine  heafde  becearf,  he 
cut  him  off  from  his  head  (B.,  1590) ;  5e£?£«/an,  deprive  (B.,721). 

(6.)  Intransitives :  hi  feondum  odfaren  hcefdon,  they  had  escaped  the 
fiends  (Exod., 64).     So  adjectives:  (Z/7/j<we/remrfe,far  from  God  (C,  105). 

(c.)  The  old  case  here  is  the  ablative,  which  is  retained  in  Latin.  The 
Greek  uses  the  genitive.  The  Anglo-Saxon  has  oftenest  the  genitive/then 
the  instrumental,  sometimes  a  dative. 

Adverbial  Comhinatlons. 

302. — I.  Instrumentals. —  (a.)  The  instrumental  or  da- 
tive may  denote  instrument,  means,  manner,  or  cause : 

spebban  speorde,  to  kill  with  sword  (B.,  679) ;  edgum  geseah,  saw  with 
eyes  (C.,  51,  2)  ;  pordum  herian,  to  praise  with  words  (C,  1,  4)  ; 
cognate  of  manner  :  gefullode  pam  fulluhte,  baptized  in  the  baptism 
(that  I  am)  (Mc,  x,  39)  ;  lustfullian  ptcs  biscopes  pordum,  to  rejoice 
because  of  the  bishop's  words  (Bed.,  2,  9) ;  adjectives  :  fedrum  snell, 
swift  with  wings  (Ex.,  206,  7) ;  ancrum  fxste,  fast  by  means  of  an- 
chors (El.,  252)  ;  fedrum  strong,  strong  in  respect  of  wings  (Ex., 
203,18);  7nundum  freorig,  [leezing  in  my  hands  (An.,  491).  Greek 
dative,  Latin  ablative  represent  these  old  instrumentals. 

(b.)  Dative  of  the  Agent.  Passive  verbs  take  the  agent  with  a  prep- 
osition {fram,  purh,  etc.)  :  gesealde  fram  minum  foeder,  given  by  my  fa- 
ther (Matt.,  xi,  27)  ;  gecpeden  purh  pone  pitegan  (ace),  spoken  by  the 
prophet  (Matt.,  iii.,  3).  The  dative  after  some  verbals  might  be  put  here  : 
Gode  sind  mihtclice  pa  ping,  to  God  the  things  arc  possible  (Luc,  xviii,  27). 
Sanskrit  here  uses  the  instrumental  regularly ;  Greek  often,  Latin  some- 
times, a  dative  without  a  preposition. 

(c.)  The  instrumental  or  dative  may  denote  price : 

dnum  penninge  geboht,  bought  with  one  penny  (Matt.  (D.),  x,  29)  ;  usu- 
ally after  pid  or  to,  or  a  genitive. 


152  DATIVE.— ADVERBIAL. 

{(7.)  The  instrumental  or  dative  may  denote  measure  of 
difference : 

sponne  lengra  pxre  pryh,  longer  than  the  coffin  by  a  span  (Bed.,  4,  11) ; 
micle  ma  sccape  bclera,  better  than  r-  sheep  by  much  more  (Matt.,  xii, 
12) ;  so  micelum  (Greg.) ;  micelre  (Bed.,  iv,  13). 

(c.)  The  instrumental  or  dative  may  denote  au  object 
sworn  by : 

mcc  pine  life  hcdlsodc,  he  swore  me  by  thy  life  (B.,  2131) ;  oftencst  after 
purh  ox  for. 

303.— II.  Ablatives.— The  comparative  degree  may  gov- 
ern a  dative. 

Mara  lohanne  fulluhtere,  greater  than  John  the  Baptist  (Matt.,  xi,  11) ; 
betera  manegum  spearpum,  better  than  many  sparrows  (Luc,  xii,  7). 
The  nominative,  with  T'onne,  than,  is  more  common.  The  instrumental 
is  found.  The  Sanskrit  uses  the  ablative,  sometimes  the  instrumental ; 
the  Greek  the  genitive  ;  the  Latin  the  ablative  ;  other  Teutonic  tongues 
are  like  Anglo-Saxon. 

304. — III,  Locatives. — {a.)  The  dative  may  denote  time 
when  or  place  where. 

Odrum  divge  hine  hyngrode,  the  second  day  he  hungered  (Mc,  xi,  12) ; 
pam  Jjriddan  dssge  he  drist,  the  third  day  he  arises  (Matt.,  xx,  19) ; 
so  instrumental:  Jjy  syxtan  monde,  on  the  sixth  month  (Bed.,i,  3). 

{b.)  It  may  denote  a  repetition  of  times :   on  dwg  seofen  sidum  syngad, 
sinneth  seven  times  a  day  (Luc,  xvii,  4). 
(c.)  The  dative  of  place  takes  a  preposition. 

Qtcasi-predicative  Combination. 

{(I)  Dative  absolute.— A  substantive  and  participle  in 
the  dative  may  make  an  adverbial  clause  of  time,  cause, 

or  coexistence  (§  278,  d,  §  295,  b,  time  with  be,  bi,  §  334). 
Him  spreccndum,  hig  comon,  they  came,  ivhile  he  was  speaking  (Mc,  v, 
35)  ;  pAnre  dura  belocenre,  bide,  thy  door  having  been  locked,  pray 
(Matt.,  vi,  G),  so  still  a  dative  in  WyclifFe.  Sanskrit  uses  thus 
different  cases  to  denote  different  relations ;  the  locative  is  the  most 
common.  The  Greek  has  the  genitive  oftenest ;  the  Latin  the  abla- 
tive. The  Teutonic  languages  use  this  construction  seldom.  Time 
when,  not  absolute,  is  put  in  tlie  dative  in  Greek. 

305.  With  Prepositions.  —  The  dative  with  a  preposi- 
tion may  denote  an  object  of  influence  or  interest,  asso- 


INSTRUMENTAL.— GEMITIVE.  153 

elation,  mastery,  or  separation ;   or  an  instrumental, 

ablative,  or  locative  adverbial  relation.     For  examples,  see 
Prepositions. 

Instrumextal. 

306.— I.  The  Proper  Instrumental.    See  §§  299,  300,  302. 

The  plural  instrumental  endings  are  lost  wholly,  the  singular  nearly. 
The  dative  generally  takes  their  place.  The  surviving  endings  are  found 
sometimes  in  ablative  and  locative  uses.  They  are  lost  also  in  Greek  and 
Latin  (^§  302,  70,  a).  O.  H.  German  and  O.  Saxon  have  a  few  singular 
examples,  Gothic  only  pronouns. 

307.— II.  Ablative  uses.    See  §§  301,  303. 
308. — III.  Locative  uses.     See  §  304. 

Genitive. 

309.  The  Anglo-Saxon  genitive  denotes  relations  of  four  old 
cases : 

1.  The  genitive,  the  possessor  and  personal  adjunct. 

2.  The  ablative,  that  from  which  any  thing  is  separated. 

3.  The  instrumental,  by  which  any  thing  is  or  is  done. 

4.  The  locative,  the  time  or  place  in  which.  The  genitive  is  already 
ia  the  Sanskrit  loosely  used  for  all  the  other  oblique  cases. 

Attributive  Combinations. 

310. — I.  Possessive. — An  attributive  genitive  may  de- 
dote  the  possessor  or  author  of  its  subject. 

The  subject  may  be 

material  ■wrealth  :    his  speordc,  his  sword  (Mc,  xiv,  47)  ; 

quality:  eiigles  hip,  angel's  beauty  (Jul.,  244)  ; 

persons  had  or  related  :  Godes  pcopds,  God's  servants  (LL.  In.,  1)  ;  Of- 
fan  dohtor,  Offa's  daughter  (Chr.,  787) ;  Incs  brmtor,  Ine's  brother  (Chr., 
718)  ;    officers:   Cantpard  cyning,  Kentish  men's  king  (Chr.,  827). 

Any  thing  conceived  as  belonging  to  another  :  Apollonies  hand,  Apollonius' 
hand  (Ap.,  21) ;  purd  apostold  Idre,  the  apostles'  lore  (Bed.,  4,  25)  ;  ^If- 
redes  domds,  Alfred's  laws  ;  huses  duru,  house's  door  (St.  G.,  1). 

311. — 11.  An  attributive  genitive  may  denote  the  sub- 
ject or  object  of  a  verbal. 

Subjective  genitive  :  Godes  gife,  God's  gift  (LL.  In.,  Pream.) ;  tpcgrd 
manna  gcpitncs,  two  men's  testimony  (John,  viii,  J.7) ;  cyninges  hivs, 
king's  command  (C,  8,  14). 


154  GENITIVE.— rAUTiriVK,  CHARACTERISTIC. 

Objective  genitive:  Godes  cgsa,  lear  of  God  (Ex.,  244,  30)  ;  synnd 
forgifcnncs,  I'orgivcness  of  sins  (Matt.,  xxvi,  28) ;  huntunge  heortd, 
hunting  of  harts  (Bed.,  1,  1). 

312. — III.  Partitive. — An  attributive  genitive  may  do- 
note  the  whole  of  -which  its  subject  is  part. 

Se  nontdxl  middangeardcs,  tlic  north  part  of  the  earth  (Bed.,  1,  1)  ; 
reste  dxges  sefene,  the  evening  of  the  Sabbath  (Matt.,  xxviii,  1). 

(a.)  The  subject  a  pronoun :  hpxt  godes  do  ic,  what  of  good  do  1 1 
(Matt.,  xix,  10) ;  Iij>:vt  pcorccs,  what  sort  of  work  (^If.)  ;  so  hpxder,  hpylc, 
eal,  sum,  :vlc,  gehpd,  gchpylc,  iiinig,pi/it,  ndht,  etc.  ; — pibr,  adv.  (C,  284,  24). 

(h.)  The  subject  a  numeral:  an  his  cnihtd,  one  of  his  disciples  (Luc, 
xi,  1)  ;  iircst  ealrd,  first  of  all  (C,  4,  32).     Compare  d,  below. 

(c.)  The  subject  a  superlative  :  suidd  liest,  least  of  seeds  (Matt.,  xiii, 
32) ;  husd  sclcst,  best  of  houses  (B.,  146).  Very  common  is  eaZra+a  su- 
perlative ;  ealrd  rtcost,  richest  of  all,  etc.,  whence  old  English  aldcrHrst, 
aWcHiefest,  etc.  (Ch.  Sh.). 

(d.)  The  subject  an  aggregation  or  niea.sure  of  objects  or  material : 
inycele  mancgeofixd,  a  great  crowd  of  fishes  (Luc,  v,  6)  ;  heard  spynd,  herd 
of  swine  (viii,  32) ;  hund  mittend  hp&tes,  a  hundred  of  measures  of  wheat 
(xvi,  7)  ;  pusend  pundd  goldes,  a  thousand  of  pounds  of  gold  (LL.  j^^^thd., 
II,  7,  2).  This  should  be  distinguished  from  the  characteristic  genitive  of 
material  (^  313,  b).     This  is  very  common,  that  rare  ;  this  is  Sanskrit  gen, 

(e.)  A  cognate  genitive  may  denote  the  eminence  of  its  subject:  cy- 
ningd  cyning,  king  of  kings  (Ex.,  9,  17) ;  drcdmd  dream,  joy  of  joys  (36, 
22) ;  heofond  heofonds,  heaven  of  heavens  (Psa.,  cxlviii,  4)  ;  and  so  abun- 
dantly in  Anglo-Saxon,  0.  Norse. 

313. — IV.  Characteristic. — An  attributive  genitive 
may  denote  a  characteristic  of  its  subject. 

In  Sanskrit  a  characteristic  takes  the  instrumental,  in  Greek  (rare)  the 
genitive,  in  Latin  (frequent)  the  ablative  or  genitive. 

(a.)  Quality  :  fvgeres  hipes  men,  men  of  fair  aspect  (Horn.,  ii,  120). 

(b.)  Material:  sccnnum  sciran  goldes,  patens  of  pure  gold  (B.,  1694); 
rare  :  material  as  characteristic  is  almost  always  expressed  by  an  adjective 
(gylden,  golden),  or  a  compound  {goldfwt.  gold  vessel),  or  a  preposition 
{rcdf  of  hierum,  garment  of  hair  (Matt.,  iii,  4)).     Compare  ^  312,  d. 

(c.)  Age  :  lamb  dnes  gedres,  lamb  of  one  year  (Horn.,  ii,  262). 

{d.)  Size  :  fen  unmabtre  m,ycelnesse,  fen  of  immense  size  (St.  G.,  3) ; 
so  weight,  value,  and  the  like:  penegd peorde,^erm\es-vioxi\\  (John,vi, 7). 

(e.)  Name  :  hit  ofetes  noman  dgan  sceolde,  it  the  name  (of)  apple  must 
have  (C,  719) ;  he  forleort  ceastra  Natzaredcs,  he  left  the  city  (of)  Naza- 
reth (Northumbrian  Matt.,  iv,  13).  The  West  Saxon  uses  the  appositive 
Nazarcd.     Bntene  igland,  island  (of)  Britain  (Chr.,  1  ;  Bed.,  1),  is  doubt- 


PREDICATIVE— EXCITING  OBJECT.  155 

ful.     The  Greek  and  Latin  used  this  genitive  sometimes,  the  French  often, 
and  it  became  common  in  Semi-Saxon. 

Predicative  Combinations. 

314.  A  predicate  substantive  may  be  put  iu  tlie  genitive 
to  denote  a  possessor  or  characteristic  of  the  subject,  or 
a  whole  of  which  it  is  part. 

Possessor:  Drijhtnes  sind  pa  rtcu,  the  kingdoms  are  the  Lord's  (Psa., 
xxi,  26)  ;  gti  Cristcs  sind,  ye  are  Christ's  (Mc,  ix,  41).     Character- 
istic :  J)d  pstron  ongrisUces  andphtan,  they  were  of  grisly  counte- 
nance (Bed.,  5,  13) ;    he  pxs  scearpre  gledpnesse,  he  was  of  sharp 
wit  (5,  19)  ;    SCO  pxs  micelre  br&do,  it  was  of  great  breadth  (5,  12)  ; 
he  lifes  p&re,  (if)  he  were  (of  hfe)  ahve  (LL.  ^thd.,  H,  9,  3) ;   he  X 
pintrd  sie,  he  may  be  of  ten  years  (LL.  H.  &  Ed.,  6).    Partitive:  se 
abbot  pxs  goderd  manna,  the  abbot  was  of  good  men  (Chr.,  1066). 
(a.)  The  predicate  genitive  may  be  used  perhaps  in  all  the  relations  of 
the  attributive  genitive.     Compare  the  Latin  and  Greek  Grammars  (Had- 
ley,  572). 

(b.)  Quasi-predicative.  The  genitive  may  be  used  for  a  predicate- 
accusative  adjective  (^  294) :  Hig  gesdpon  pone  sittan  gescrydne  and  hales 
modes,  they  saw  him  sit  clothed  and  of  sound  mind  (Mc,  v,  15). 

Objective  Combinations. 

These  are  mostly  secondary,  either  abridged  or  acquired,  hi  most  of 
them  one  of  the  common  relations  of  the  attributive  genitive  may  be  con- 
ceived between  the  genitive  and  the  notion  of  the  verb  or  adjective  with 
which  it  combines  :  he  fears  it  =  he  has  fear  of  it ;  he  remembers  it  ^  he 
has  remembrance  of  it. 

315.  Exciting-  Object.— The  genitive  may  denote  an  ex- 
citing object. 

That  which  suggests  or  excites  a  mental  state  or  an  act  is  its  exciting 
object.     The  most  common  states  or  acts  taking  this  object  are 

L  Feelings — ^joy,  sorrow,  pride,  shame,  longing,  love,  hope,  fear,  care,  won- 
der, etc.  Verbs  :  pcodncs  gcfegon,  they  joyed  in  the  lord  (B.,  1627)  ; 
mordres  gylped,  he  exults  at  murder  (B.,  2055) ;  pivrc  fcohgifle  scami- 
gan,  to  be  ashamed  of  the  gift  (B.,  1026)  ;  gilpes  pu  girncst,  thou  yearn- 
est  for  fame  (Boeth.,  32) ;  ondred  he  pxs,  he  feared  that  (John,  xix,  8) ; 
pxpnd  nc  rcccd,  he  recks  not  of  weapons  (B.,  434)  ;  piindriirc  fullcs  mo- 
nan,  wonder  at  the  full  moon  (Met.,  28,  40)  ;  so  begym  (Luc,  x,  35) ; 
pilnian  (An.,  1130);  pyscad  (Guth.,  194),  and  see  ^  297,  c.  Adjec- 
tives :  fxgen  sides,  glad  of  the  journey  (An.,  1043) ;  sutes  perig,  weary 
of  the  journey  (B.,  579)  ;  godes  grxdig,  greedy  of  good  (Sol.,  344). 


15  6  GENITI VE.  — P  AKTITI VE.  —SEPARATION. 

II.  Intellectual  states — remember,  forget,  think  of,  listen,  etc.  Verbs  : 
gcmun  pines  pordcs,  remember  thy  word  (Psa.,  cxviii,  49);  Godcs  hi. 
forgcdton,  thoy  forgot  God  (Psa.,  cv,  18);  pence  pe  ndncs  yfeles,  vvc 
think  no  evil  (Gen.,  xlii,  31) ;  hlyst  his  pordd,  listen  to  his  words  (Nic, 
3).  Adjectives  :  gcmyndige  Lodes  pi/cs,  mindful  of  Lot's  wife  (Luc., 
xvii,  31) ;   unpis  Pjxs  naman,  ignorant  of  the  name  (Bed.,  4,  13). 

III.  Acts  related  with  such  states  of  mind — laugh,  pray,  help,  try,  watch, 
remind,  etc.  :  pxt  pif  dhloh  drihlnes,  the  woman  laughed  at  the  lord  (C, 
2380);  fliKSCcs  hi  b&don,  they  prayed  for  flesh  (Psa.,  civ,  35);  Indaii 
pines  cftcymcs,  watch  for  thy  return  (Ex.,  4CG,  33) ;  help  min,  help  me 
(Psa.,  Ix,  1)  ;  Ilpi  fandige  ge  min,  why  tempt  ye  me?  (Matt.,  xxii,  19)  ; 
min  costode, tried  after  me  (B.,2084).     Adjectives:  gearo  (Jul., 49). 

(a.)  Verbs  of  asking,  accusing,  reminding  may  take  an 
accusative  and  genitive  (§§  292,  297, «) : 

pe  hiddan  dure  bene,  to  ask  thee  of  one  thing  (B.,  427) ;  dcsian  (Bed.,  4, 
3) ;  ti/hd  me  mitrevpdd,  accuseth  me  of  untruths  (C,  36,  33) ;  usic 
pdrd  lednd  gcmonian,  to  remind  us  of  the  loans  (Ex.,  333,  19). 

(b.)  Verbs  of  granting,  refusing,  and  thanking  may  take 
a  dative  and  genitive.     See  §  297,  cl 

(c.)  Impersonals  may  take  a  genitive  and  an  accusative  or  dative 
of  the  person  excited  :  hme  letes  lysted,  he  longs  for  food,  §  290,  c  (VVal., 
52) ;  him  pxs  ne  sceamode,  it  did  not  shame  him  of  that,  ^  297,  a  (Gen., 
ii,  25). 

{d.)  Reflexives  may  take  the  reflexive  pronoun  and  a  genitive :  on- 
dred  he  him  pxs,  he  dreaded  (him)  of  that  (John,  xix,  8). 

(e.)  In  Sanskrit  the  exciting  object  is  regularly  an  ablative,  but  many  of 
the  verb  notions  here  specified  already  take  a  genitive ;  in  Greek  the  geni- 
tive is  established,  in  Latin  frequent ;  in  Teutonic,  genitives,  datives  (instru- 
mentals),  and  accusatives  combine  often  with  the  same  verb. 

316.  Partitive.  —  The  genitive  may  denote  an  object  af- 
fected in  part. 

After  verbs  of  sharing  and  touch :  genam  J)xs  ofxtes,  he  took  of  the 
fruit  (C,  493) ;  xt  pisses  ofxtes,  he  ate  of  this  fruit  (C.,  500,  564)  ;  pxs 
pxstmes  onbdt,  bit  of  the  fruit  (C,  470) ;  ic  hxbbe  his  her,  I  have  (some) 
of  it  (the  fruit)  here  (C,  678);  hts  hrinan,  to  take  hold  of  it  (C.,  616); 
p&pnd  onfon,  to  take  hold  of  weapons  (C,  2040).  So  in  other  languages. 
In  the  Romanic  tongues,  and  sometimes  in  Anglo-Saxon,  a  preposition  is 
used.     See  of. 

317.  Separation  (ablative). — The  genitive  may  denote  an 
object  of  separation.     (Compare  §  301.) 

(a.)  Many  transitive  verbs  of  separation  take  an  accusative  of  the 


RULE.— MATEELUv.— MEASURE.— ADJUNCT.  157 

person  and  a  genitive  :  benwman  Crist  rices,  to  deprive  Christ  of  the 
kingdom  (C.,286,  3) ;  fata  hine  bereafian,  rob  him  of  his  goods  (Matt.,  xii, 
29) ;  hine  ganges  getpsbman,  to  hinder  him  from  flight  (B.,  967)  ;  getpx- 
fed  (B.,  1763)  ;  geclxnsa  (Ps.  C,  112)  ;  berebdde  (An.,  1328). 

(b.)  Intransitives  —  cease,  need,  miss,  etc. :  God  gespdc  his  peorces, 
God  ceased  from  his  work  (Gen.,  ii,  3)  ;  ealdrcs  linnan,  to  be  deprived  of 
life  (B.,  2443)  ;  pingd  bepurfon,  have  need  of  things  (Matt.,  vi,  32)  ;  beho- 
fad  (Bed.,  4,25)  ;  miste  mercelscs,  missed  the  mark  (B.,  2439)  ;  pws  sodes 
ansaced,  deviate  from  the  truth  (Sol.,  182).  Adjectives:  buendrd  leas, 
empty  of  inhabitants  (C.,6, 16) ;  f denes  c/cfenc,  clean  of  crime  (Ex.,  276,  13); 
anes  pana  fiftig,  fifty  less  one  (An.,  1042) ;  bed&led,  p.  p.  (C,  276,  9). 

318.  Supremacy. — The  genitive  may  denote  an  object  of 
supremacy  or  use. 

God  pealded  mannd  cynnes,  God  rules  the  race  of  men  (Psa.,  Iviii,  13). 
See  §  300. 

319.  Material.— The  genitive  or  instrumental  may  de- 
note the  material  of  which  any  thing  is  made  or  full.  Com- 
pare §  302,  «. 

Pwt  fxt  leddes  gefylde,  filled  the  vessel  with  lead  (Ex.,  277,  10) ;  ofx- 
tes  gehlcedene,  laden  with  fruit  (C,  461) ;  peos  eorde  is  berende  fiige- 
Id,  the  land  is  full  (bearing)  of  birds  (Bed.,  1,1);  adjectives  :  fxt  ful 
ecedes,  vessel  full  of  vinegar  (John,  xix,  29)  ;  gdste  (Luc,  iv,  I). 

(a.)  The  material  after  a  verb  of  making  takes  a  preposition.     ^  294,  c. 

(b.)  The  material  is  put  in  the  genitive  in  some  other  relations.     ^  324. 

320.  Measure- — Tlie  genitive  in  combination  Avith  a(7Je€- 
tives  may  denote  measure.     Compare  §§  295,  302. 

(a.)  Space,  dimension  :  fifliges  fot-gemearces  long,  fifty  paces  long 
(B.,  3043) ;  fiflend  monnes  elnd  deop,  fifteen  man's  ells  deep  (C,  1397). 

{b.)  Time :  he  pons  hundnigontiges  pintrd  eald,  he  was  (of)  ninety  (of) 
winters  old  (Bed.,  3,  27) ;  oftenest  English  {twelve)  years  old  is  in  Anglo- 
Saxon  a  compound  adjective  (fpelf) pintre  (Luc.,ii,  42;  viii,42;  Gen.,  v,0). 

(c.)  Price,  value  :  six  peningd  pyrde,  sixpence  worth  (Rask)  ;  is  pyrde 
his  metes,  is  worthy  of  his  meat  (Matt.,  x,  10).     Compare  ^'^  302,  313,  d. 

(d.)  Crime  :  mordrcs  scyldig,  guilty  of  murder  (B.,  1083) ;  deddes  scyl- 
dig,  deserving  of  death  (Matt.,  xxvi,  60).     Also  dative  and  instrumental. 

321.  Adjunct. — The  genitive  in  combination  with  adjec- 
tives may  denote  the  ^>rn-^  or  relation  in  which  tlie  quality  is 
conceived. 

Modes  blide,  blithe  of  mind  (B.,  430)  ;  mtpgcnes  streng,  strong  of  might 
(B.,  1844).     For  instrumentals,  see  §  302. 


158  GENITIVE— ADVERBIAL.— PREPOSITIONS. 

Adverbial  Combinations. 
IMost  examples  are  relics  of  the  time  when  the  genitive  was  more  freely 
used  in  the  adverbial  relations  than  we  find  it  in  the  literary  remains.     See 
further  §  251. 

322.  Space. — The  genitive  may  denote  by  what  way : 

pcndon  him  pa  udrcs  pcges  hdmpcard,  they  return  homeward  by  another 

way  (Chr.,  lOOC),  Gr.  riic  oSov,  Ger.  deincsjocges. 
How  far  from  (?) :    IV  mild  from  pam  vnutan,  four  miles  from  the 

mouth  (Chr.,  893  ;  so  Majtzner),  but  four  of  miles  is  better  {^  295). 

323.  Time. — The  genitive  may  denote  the  time  when : 

pintres  and  sumcres  pudii  bid  gcltce  gehongcn,  winter  and  summer  the 
wood  is  alike  hung  (with  fruits)  (Ph.,  37) ;  pxs  pintres,  that  winter 
(Chr.,  878)  ;  ones  dosges,  one  day  (Job,  165)  ;  dxges  and  nihtcs,  by 
day  and  night  (B.,  2269) ;  pis  pxs  feordes  gedres,  this  was  on  the 
fourth  year  (Chr.,  47).     Note  also  pxs,  thereafter. 

324.  Means. — The  genitive  may  denote  means  or  cause : 

pxteres  pcorpan,  to  sprinkle  with  water  (Dom.,  78) ;  glxd  pines,  jolly 
with  wine  (B.,  2791). 

325.  Manner. — The  genitive  may  denote  manner: 

biigan  spilces  gcongordomcs,  bow  in  such  vassalage  (C,  283) ;  gepeal- 
des  monnan  ofslcd,  intentionally  slay  a  man  (LL.  Alf.,  Intr.,  13) ;  s6- 
des  ic  pe  secge,  of  a  truth  I  say  to  you  (Matt.,  v,  26)  ;  peaxad  self- 
pilles,  grow  of  their  own  accord  (Lev.,  xxv,  5). 

32G.  With  Prepositions. — The  genitive  with  a  prep- 
osition is  sometimes  used  to  denote  instrumental,  abla- 
tive, or  locative  adverbial  relations.     See  Prepositions. 


USES   OF   PREPOSITIONS. 

327.  A  preposition  governs  a  substantive,  and  shows  its 
relation  to  some  other  word  in  the  clause. 

{a.)  This  relation  is  oftenest  adverbial,  but  may  be  attributive,  pred- 
icative, or  objective  :  sxton  be  pam  strande,  sat  by  the  strand  (Matt., 
xiii,  48)  ;  —  attributive  :  redf  of  hxrum,  garment  of  hair  (Matt.,  iii,  4) ;  — 
predicative  :  he  pxs  fram  Bedsdida,  he  was  from  Bethsaida  (John,  i,  44) ; 
— objective  :  on  his  dgenum  fxdcr  dre  gescedpian,  render  honor  to  his  fa- 
ther (C,  1580). 

(Jb.)  A  preposition  may  merely  define  a  verb.  It  is  then  said  to  be  in 
complete  composition,  if  phonetically  united  with  it,  otherwise  in  incomplete. 


GENERAL  RULES.— AND,  ANDLONG,  ^FTER.  159 

328.  Prej^ositions  expressing  extent  take  the  accusative, 
others  the  dative  and  instrumental. 

Ace.  Signs  :  gcond,  ad,  Jnirh,  y?nb{c)=:cmb{c). 

Ace.  sometimes:   and,  after,  xt,  for,  fore,  foran,  in,  innan,  mid,  on,  to, 
ofer,  uppan,  under,  pid. 

{a.)  Prepositions  expressing  position,  or  a  place  of  rest  before  or  after 
motion,  take  a  dative.  The  same  preposition  may  express  extension  with 
one  verb  and  rest  after  another.  (Study  the  examples.)  The  dative  also 
has  taken  up  the  instrumental  and  ablative  relations,  and  all  others  ex- 
cept plain  accusatives.  Occasional  instrumentals  and  genitives  occur,  and 
are  given  under  their  prepositions. 

(J).)  Prepositions  compounded  with  adverbs  generally  retain  their  case. 
Ace.  ymb-utan,  and  sometimes  on-butan,  on-foran,  on-uppan,  ongegn,  on- 
gemong,  pid-geondan,  pid-xfLan,  pid-innan  1  Grain. 

329.  The  genitive  is  sometimes  used  w'Mh  fmrh., pkt,  of,  to, 
innan,  -dtan,  pana, — mostly  in  old  phrases.    (Compare  §  322.) 

(a.)  Prepositions  compounded  with  nouns  may  take  a  genitive  originally 
an  attributive  with  the  noun  :  and-lang,  to-middes,  be-tpeonum. 

Table   of   Pkepositions. 

330.  and  (§  254) ;    -f  dative  or  +  accusative :  Gothic  ace. 

I.  Dative — number:   eahta  nilit  and  fcoperum,  eight  nights  and  four 
(Men.,  211). 

II.  Accusative — place:  and  cardan,  on  the  earth  (Met.,  20, 123) ;  and 
ordfruman,  in  presence  of  their  creator  (C,  13). 

and-long,  -lang  (^^  259,  329,  a)  +  gen. :  rtdcnde  andlang  pws  pestenes, 
pursuing  along  the  wilderness  (Jos.,  viii,  16) ;  up  andlong  (Chr.,  882) ;  ny- 
iter  andlang,  down  along  (Lev.,  i,  15). 

331.  aefter  (§  255),  more  aft;  +  dative  or  (rare)  accusative. 
Gotb.  ofar  +  dat.,  ace. ;  O.  Sax.,  O.  II.  Ger.  aftar;  O.  IST.  ef)ti7\ 

1.  Dative. 
Place  —  position  :  cumad  xftcr  me,  come  further  back  than  I  =: follow  mc 

(Matt.,  iv,  19) ; — extent :  sAlon  softer  bcorgum,  they  sat  dispersed  through 

the  hills  (C,  191,  9).     Latin  secundum. 
Time — point:  xfter prtjm  dagum  ic  arise,  after  three  days  I  arise  (Matt., 

xxvii,  63) ; — extent:  wftcr  poruldstundum,  during  this  life  (El.,  363) ; — 

repetition  :  pundor  wfter  pundre,  wonder  after  wonder  (B.,93I). 
Cause  :  panian  wftcr  headospdtc,  melt  because  of  the  hot  blood  (B.,  1606) ; 

— end:  dcsode  xflcr  him,  asked  after  him  (Psa.,  xxxvi,35);  grof  wftcr 

goldc,  grub  after  gold  (Met.,  8,  57).     Compare /o?-. 


160  PREPOSITIONS.— iEFT,  JEU,  MT,  iETFORAN,  BI. 

Likeness  :  gcporlUnc  srfter  his  07il1c7iessc,  made  after  his  likeness  (C.,25, 
IH)  ;  ;rftcr  Engld  lagc,  according  to  English  law  (^dr.,  1).     See  bt. 

II.  Accusative. 
Place  :  he  cordan  wfLcr  pxtcr  scttc,  he  set  the  earth  upon  the  waters  (Psa., 
cxxxv,  G). 

seft^^a'fter  (rare) :  irft  mec,  (come)  after  me  (Matt.,  iv,  19,  Northumbr.) ; 
wft  sunnan  scilgangc,  after  sunset  (Gen.,  xxviii,  1 1).    O.  Eng.  eft,  cft-soons. 

332.  ffir  (§  259)4-dative.    Nortbum.  ace.  aud  gen.,  Gotli,  geu. 

Time  :  Ar  sumeres  cyme,  before  summer's  coming  (El.,  1228)  ;  hatcde  me 
ivr  cop,  hated  me  before  (it  hated)  you  (John,  xv,  18) ;  &r  pam,  pon,J)i), 
Lat.  priusquam,  before  that. 

333.  aBt  (§  254,  3)  + dative  or  (rare)  ace.    Gothic  dat.,  ace,  gen. 

I.  Dative. 

Place — position  :  pxron  at  Exanceastre,  were  at  Exeter  (^ds.  VI) ;  wt 
ham,  at  home  (B.,  1248) ; — direction  :  comon  wt  me,  came  to  me  (Matt., 
XXV,  43);  —  departure:  dnimad  pxt  pund  wt  him,  take  the  pound  from 
beside  him  (Matt.,  xxv,  28) ;  onfeng  pallium  xt  papan,  he  received  the 
pallium  at  the  hands  of  the  pope  (Chr.,  1026) ;  so  with  learn,  hear,  iaice, 
etc.  xt  =  of,  from.  So  in  Gothic,  O.  Norse.  Compare  Or.  Trapd  and 
the  dative  of  separation  (^  301).     Often  strengthened  hy  gelang  (B.,  1377). 

Time — point :  xt  middan  sumere,  at  midsummer  (Bed.,  5,23) ;  xt  xrcslan, 
for  the  first  time  (Ex.,  51,  30). 

Specification  (Lat.  quoad)  :  xt  xte  speop,  got  along  as  to  eating  (B.,  3026). 

Opposition :  xt  me  gepyrcean,  work  against  me  (Psa.,  cxxviii,  1). 

State — circumstance:  stande  xt  gehede,  stand  praying  (Psa.,  v,  3);  sxt 
xt  pine,  sat  at  the  wine  (Rid.,  47,  1). 

II.  Accusative  —  space:  xt  sxstredmds  gehrxddest,  extendest  even  to 
the  sea-streams  (Psa.,  Ixxix,  11). 

8et-foran  (-{-dative  or  (rare)  ace.) : — place  :  xlforan  pam  folce,  (go)  in 
front  of  the  people  (Jos.,  iii,  6) ; — person:  gepemmed  xtforan  Gode,  cor- 
rupt before  God  (Gen.,  vi,  11) ; — time  :  xtforan  mxssan,  before  (St.  An- 
drew's) mass-day  (Chr.,  1010).  II.  Ace.  :  xtforan  edgan  pine,  before  thine 
eyes  (Psa.,  v,  5  ;  Ettm.). 

334.  bi,  be  (§  254,  2) ;  +  dative  (instr.) :  Gothic  ace.  and  dat. 

Place — immediate  juxtaposition  :  hi  sxton  be  pam  strandc,  they  sat  by  the 
strand  (Matt.,  xiii,  48) ;  dledon  he  mxste,  laid  him  by  the  mast  (B.,  36)  ; 
fur  he  pam  lande,  sailed  along  by  the  land  (Ores.,  1,  1)  ;  he  pege,  by  the 
way  (Mc,  viii,  3) ; — part  handled  :  genam  be  feaxe,  took  him  by  the  hair 
(Jud.,  99). 


B^FTAN,  BE-EASTAN,  ,  BE-TPIHS.  161 

Time:  be  dseges  leohte,  by  daylight  (Rid.,  28,  17); — dative  (absolute:  pu 
ne  dliBte  be  pe  lifigendum,  permit  thou  not,  while  thou  livest  (B.,2665). 

Cause — means  :  hangad  he  prwde,  hangs  by  a  thread  (Boeth.,  29) ; — source  : 
sunu  dgan  be  bryde  ptnre,  have  a  son  by  thy  wife  (C,  2326) ; — theme  : 
sungon  be  Godes  hearnc,  sung  of  God's  son  (EL,  562) ;  dcsiad  be  pam 
cilde,  ask  about  the  cliild  (Matt.,  ii,  8) ;  be  pam  dcege  nan  man  ndt,  of 
that  day  no  man  knovveth  (Mc,  xiii,  32) ; — command  :  ferde  be  his  hld- 
fordes  hssse,  went  by  his  lord's  command  (Gen.,  xxiv,  10) ; — agent  (rare, 
if  ever)  :  forlibd  be  pam  lygenum,  seduced  by  him  by  lies  (C.,  598) ;  so 
Maetzner,  1,  404,  and  Grein  under  lygen,  but  better  by  the  lies  (means). 
Goth,  hi  is  not  so  used.     In  Middle  English  (Wycliffe)  first  common. 

Manner:  be  fullan,  fully  (Psa.,  xxx,  27) ;  be  siimum  d^le,  partly  (Met., 
20,  96)  ;  —  succession,  likeness  :  pord  be  porde,  word  for  word  (Boeth., 
Pref.) ; — proportion  :  be  gepyrhtum,  according  to  their  works  (An.,  1613) ; 
— accompaniment:  be  hearpan  singan,  sing  to  the  harp  (Bed.,  4,  24). 

Measure  of  difference  (^  302,  d) :  mdre  be  dnum  stiefe,  more  by  one  let- 
ter (Nic,  33). 

b-eeftan  (+dat.) :  gang  beef  tan  me,  get  behind  (by)  me  (Matt.,  xvi,  23) ; 

bxftan  pam  hldforde,  except  with  the  owner  (Exod.,  xxii,  14). 
be-eastan,  -pcstan,  etc.  (+dat.)  :    be-edstan  Rtnc,  east  of  the  Rhine 

(Oros,  1,1;  where  also  -pestan,  etc.). 
be-foran  (+dat.  or  ace.) : — place  :  him  bc/oran,  before  him  (C,  183, 17) ; 

— time  (Psa.,  civ,  15).     Ace,  place  :  bcforan  pone  cyning,  in  sight  of 

the  king  (Boeth.,  16,  2). 
be-geondan  (-|-dat.  or  ace.)  :  he  pscs  begeondan  lorddne,  he  was  over 

by  Jordan  (John,  iii,  26).      Ace. :  covi  begeondan  lorddnen,  came  by 

past  Jordan  (Matt.,  19,  1). 
be-healfe  (4-dat.)  :   bchcalfe  mhium  hldfordc,  beside  of  my  lord  (By., 

318). 
be-heonan  (+dat.)  :  beheonan  sec,  this  side  the  sea  (Chr.,  878). 
be-tindan  (+dat.)  :  him  bchindan,  behind  him  (Met.,  29,  52). 
b-innan  (4-dat.)  : — place:   binnan  pam  dice,  within  the  dike  (Bed.,  1, 

11)  ; — time  :  binnan  prym  dagum,  within  three  days  (John,  ii,  19). 
be-neo(lan  (+dat.)  :  bcneodan  cncope,  below  the  knee  (^If.  LL.,63). 
b-ufan  (-j-dat.)  :   bufan  Jjxm  elnhogan,  above  the  elbow  (54);    a-b-ove 

<  Orm.  d-b-ufenn  has  not  been  found  in  Anglo-Saxon. 
b(e)-utan  {a,  a)  (+dat.) :  buton  burgum,  out  of  towns  (Edg.,  IV,  2,  3) ; 

biiton  ende,  without  end  (Sat.,  315) ;  bUton  dnum,  except  one  (B.,  705). 
be-tpeonum,  -tpdm,  -tpf/nan  (+dat.  or  ace.)  :  be  stem  tpeonum,  by  two 
seas  (B.,  858) ;  him  hctpynun,  among  them  (Job,  166).     Ace.  :  bc-tpeonum 
peallds,  (ledest)  between  walls  (Psa.  cv,  9).     Genitive  :  Rid.,  30,  2. 
be-tpih-(s),  -tpeox,  Layamon  betwixte  (+dat.  or  ace.) :  betpeox  pe  and 

J)am  pije,  betwixt  thee  and  the  woman  (Gen.,  iii,  15).     Ace.  :  betpeox 

his  mdgds,  (sought  him)  among  his  kindred  (Luc.,  ii,  44). 

L 


162  liAC,  FEOR,  rOK,  FOUE,  FIJAM. 

335.  eac  (§  254,  1)  +  dative,     Gotb.  adv.  coiij. 

Number:  pf/  pruldan  gcare  cdc  tpcntigum,  the  third  year  in  addition  to 
twenty  (Bed.,  1,  13) ;  freond  xnignc  edc  pissum  idcsum,  any  friend  be- 
sides these  women  (C,  2500)  ;  cdc  pam  {pan,  pun),  thereupon,  more- 
over (Met.,  1,  41). 

336.  feor  (§  259)  -\-  dative. 

Place :  feor  urum  mynstre,  far  from  our  monastery  (B6d.,  5,  4)  ;  fcor  his 
fieder,  far  from  his  father  (Luc.,  xv,  20) ;  unfeor  (vii,  6). 

337.  for  (§  254,  2)  +  dat,  or  instr.,  or  ace.     Gotb.  ace. 

fore  (§  254,  2)  +  dat.  or  ace.     Gotb.  dat.    {for-  =frce-.) 

I.  Dative  and  instrumental :  {for-:  for-manig,  very  many,  By.,  239). 
Place  :  for  his  edgum,  before  his  eyes  (C.,2429) ;  fore  edgum  (Cri.,  1324) ; 

for  Abrahame,  before  Abraham  (C.,2778)  ;  fore  (Cri.,  1233). 

Time  :  for  pintrd  fela,  many  winters  before  (C,  2199)  ;  fore  (Cri.,  1031). 

Oause — motive:  propode  for  manna  lufan,  suffered  for  love  of  men  (Men., 
86) ;  fore  (Hell.,  110) ; — occasion  :  for  guman  synnan,  suffered  for  man's 
sin  (Kr.,  146);  fore  (Cri.,  1095)  ; — exciting  object:  for  his  life  lyt  sor- 
gedon,  they  cared  little  for  his  life  (Ex.,  110, 18) ;  fore  (B.,  1442) ;— da- 
tive of  advantage  :  for  us  gepropode,  suffered  for  us  (Sat.,  665) ;  fore 
(Cri.,  1202) ; — theme  :  s&don  for  manegum  yfelum  dxdum,  spoke  of  many 
evil  deeds  (Nic,  2)  ;  fore  (Pa.,  34);  —  oath  :  for  drihtne,  for  God's  sake 
(Met.,  1,  64) ;  fore  (Jul.,  540) ; — reason  :  for  ptam  {an,  on),forpy,  there- 
fore ;  for  hpam  {an,  on),  for  hpi,  wherefore;  —  exchange:  feounge  for 
lufan,  hate  for  love  (Psa.  cviii,  4) ;  for  eallum  pnssiim,  in  spite  of  all  that 
(Chr.,  1006) ;  for  intingan,  for  the  sake  of  (Bed.,  3,  8). 

Manner  :  for  his  peldeedum,  according  to  his  good  works  (Psa.,-  Ixxvi,  7) ; 
— order  :  gyfe  for  gyfe,  gift  after  gift  (John,  i,  16). 

II.  Accusative. 

Place — after  motion:  gdn  for  p^S  andpeardne,  go  before  thee  (C,  871); 
fore  (An.,  1030). 

Time :  for  ealle  men,  (acted)  before  all  men  (Kr.,  93) ;  fore  preo  niht,  be- 
fore three  nights  (An.,  185). 

Cause — motive:  for  plenco,  for  pride  (B.,  1206); — advantage  =  dative  : 
for  ehterds  and  t&lendum,  pray  for  persecutors  and  calumniators  (Matt., 
V,  44)  ; — exchange  :  tod  for  tad,  tooth  for  tooth  (Matt.,  v,  38). 

Factitive  Object  {^  286,  b)  :  hine  hsefde  for  f nine  cyning,  held  him  for 
(as)  full  king  (Chr.,  1013). 

338.  frain,/wm  (§  254,  2)  +  ablative>dat.  (instr.).    Gotb.  dat. 

Place  whence  motion  :  comon  fram  edst-dablc,  came  from  the  east  (Matt., 
ii,l). 


GEHEXDE,  GEOND,  IN,  ON.  163 

Time  :  fram  dxges  orde,  from  daybreak  (EL,  140). 

Conditions  and  relations  whence  separation  :  drds  he  fram  sldipe,  he  arose 
from  sleep  (Bed.,  4,  24);  fram  synnum,  from  sins  (El.,  1309)  ;  feor 
fram  me,  (their  heart)  far  from  me  (Mc,  vii,  6).      Instrumental:  frain 

'     pys  pig-plegan,  (turn)  from  this  war-play  (By.,  316). 

Cause — source  :  fram  pdvi  hit  naman  onfeng,  from  whom  it  took  name 
(Bed.,  1,  1) ;  —  agent  with  the  passive  :  costnud  fram  deofle,  tempted  by 
the  devil  (Matt.,  iv,  1) ; — theme  :  fram  ellendxdum  secgan  hyrde,  heard 
tell  of  hero-deeds  (B.,  875). 

339.  gehende  (§  259)  +  dative.     O,  Sax.  at  Jiandimi. 
Place  :  gehende  pam  scype,  handy  (near)  to  the  ship  (John,  vi,  19). 

340.  geoud  (^o)  (§  255),  tbither+acc.  of  that  intervening. 

Place  :  gd  geond  pegds,  go  through  the  highways  (Luc,  xiv,  23) ;  geond 
/>M(fM,  through  the  wood  (In.,  20) ;  geond  pa  peude,  a.mong  the  people  (An., 
25) ;  geond  stopd,  through  the  places,  all  about  (Luc,  x.xi,  11). 

Time:  geond  feopertig  dagd,  after  forty  (of)  days  (Num.,  xiii,  22). 

341.  in  (§  254,  l)  +  clat.,  instr.,  ace.     Gotb.  dat.,  ace.,  genitive. 
on  (§  254,  l)  +  dat.,  ace.     Goth,  dat.,  ace. 

In  Old  Saxon  in  is  not  found,  nor  in  the  Anglo-Saxon  of  Alfred's  Meters, 
the  Runes,  or  Byrhtnod ;  it  is  twice  in  the  Psalms,  three  times  in  Csedmon's 
Genesis  ;  elsewhere  in  the  Anglo-Saxon  poetry  in  and  on  freely  inter- 
change :  but  in  prevails  in  the  North,  on  in  the  South.  The  distinctive 
on  has  a  vertical  element  {up  or  down),  which  easily  runs  to  against  or 
near.     (See  Grein,  2, 140.) 

I.  Dative,  Instrumental. 

Place  where:  in  tune  ofsleah,  slay  (a  man)  in  town  (^db.,  5);  on  py 
cynerice,  in  the  kingdom  (Chr.,  871) ;  in  heafde  hpite  loccds,  on  the  head 
white  locks  (Rid.,  41,  98);  on  has  also:  on  picge,  on  horse-back  (B., 
286) ;  on  Temesan,  winter  quarters  on  (along)  the  Thames  (Chr.,  1009) ; 
— person  :  on  hym  sy  gefylled,  in  them  is  fulfilled  (the  prophecy)  (Matt., 
xiii,  14) ;  on  plfum,  (blessed)  among  women  (Luc,  i,  28)  ;  —  after  verbs 
of  taking  away :  blxdd  name  on  telgum,  took  fruit  from  the  branches 
(C,  892).     Compare  xt. 

Time  when  :  in  gedr-dagum,  in  old  days  (B.,  1)  ; — on  :  on  pam  eahtodan 
dxge,  on  the  eighth  day  (Job,  164) ; — how  long  :  on  six  dagum,  in  six 
days  (he  made  the  earth)  (C,  260,  1) ;  on  py  ylcan  gedre,  in  the  same 
year  (Chr.,  896). 

Cause — theme  :  think  on  (Psa.  cxvii,  8) ; — end  :  on  forgifcnnissc,  for  for- 
giveness of  sins  (Ilom.,  ii,  268) ; — exciting  object :  pundredon  on  his  lure, 
wondered  at  his  lore  (Mc,  vi,  2)  ;  trust  in  (Psa.  li,  6  ;  ace,  cxxiv,  1). 

Means  or  instrument :    se  pecs  hcorht  on  bliidum,  that  was  bright  with 


164      INNAN,  ON-BUTAN,  ON-EFN,  ON-FORAN,  ON-GEGN. 

flowers  (Dan.,  500) ;  ic  on  minum  mude  andetle,  I  confess .  with  my 
mouth  (Psa.,  cviii,  29)  ;  sungon  on  lympanis,  they  sang  to  the  accompa- 
niment of  drums  (Psa.,  Ixvii,  S4)  ;  psallcrio,  hcarpe  (cxliii,  10). 

Material :  on  pdm  tclgum  timbran,  to  work  upon  the  brandies  (Ph.,  188). 

Mauner  :  comon  on  prim  Jlocctim,  came  in  three  companies  (Job,  1G5) ; — 
condition:  in  gebcde  ht  stod, he  stood  in  prayer  (Bed.,  5,  12);  on  (B., 
1739) ;  on  onlicnesse  purde,  grew  into  likeness  (C.,2564). 
II.  Accusative. 

Place  whither :  heo  hine  in  pxl  mynstre  onfcng,  she  took  him  into  the 
monastery  (Bed.,  4,  24)  ; — on  :  fcollon  on  pornds,  fell  (down)  on  thorns 
(Matt.,  xiii,  7) ;  hvdde  hine  on  munt,  led  him  (up)  on  a  mount  (Matt.,  iv, 
8)  ;  datives  are  found  in  this  sense  :  on  heofenum  cuman,  to  come  into 
heaven  (Job,  16G)  ;  —  persons:  com  hungur  on  Bryttds,  hunger  came 
among  the  Britons  (Bed.,  1,  14)  ;  lie  on  hi  feaht,  he  fought  against  them 
(3,9). 

Time  how  long:  in  calle  t'ld,  for  all  time  (Pa.,  17);  on  pa  xfentid,  at 
eventide  (Kr.,  68). 

Cause — purpose  :  gdn  onjixod,  go  a  fishing  (John,  xxi,  3)  ;  —  price  :  be- 
bohte  on  scolfres  sine,  sold  for  a  treasure  of  silver  (C,  301,  7). 

Manner:  07i  Scyttisc,  in  Scottish  (tongue)  (Bed.,  3,  27)  ; — condition:  on- 
pxcned  in  lif,  awakeneth  into  life  (Ph.,  649). 

Factitive  :  he  up  dr&rde  redde  stredmds  in  rand-gebcorh,  he  reared  the 
red  streams  into  (as)  side  defences  (C,  196,  24). 

innan  (§  257,  Goth.  adv.)  +  dat.,  ace,  gen.  Dat.  :  he  sxt  innan  huse, 
he  sat  in  the  house  (Matt.,  ix,  10)  ; — ace. :  feal  innan  pa  see,  fall  into 
the  sea  (xxi,  22) ; — gen.:  gdst  innan  hredres,  soul  within  the  body 
(Psa.  cxlii,  4).     So  time  ;  Dat.  (Chr.,  806) ;  Ace.  (Chr.,  693). 

on-butan  (rare),  dhutan  (^  257)  -|-  dat.  or  ace.  :  xteoped  dbutan  p&re 
sunnan,  (ring)  visible  around  the  sun  (Chr.,  806)  ;  onbutan  pxre  sun- 
nan  (Chr.,  1104) ;  —  ace.  (Exod.,  xix,  12).  Number  :  dbutan  feoper 
hund  manna,  about  four  hundred  men  (Chr.,  1055). 

on-efn  (0.  Sax.,  O.  H.  Ger.,  ^  258)  + dat. :  him  on-efn  liged,  anent  (= 
beside)  him  lies  (B.,  2903).     Ace.  (Grein) ;   gen.  (Gen.,  xvi,  12). 

on-foran  (^  257)  + dat.  (rare,  see  be-foran) :  ovforan  pintcr,  before  win- 
ter (Chr.,  894). 

on-gegn,  d-gen,  -gedn  (^  258)+dat.,  ace.  Place  :  pdm  diUum  ongegen, 
(Britain  lies)  opposite  the  regions  (of  Europe)  (Bed.,  1,  1) ;  ongen  eop, 
opposite  you  (Matt.,  xxi,  2) ; — hostility  :  ongcdn  gramum,  (go)  against 
the  fiends  (B.,  1034)  ;  ongedn  his  lustum,  fight  against  his  lusts  (Job, 
l&7)=^pid.  Ace. — place  :  dgcn  hine  am,  ran  to  him  (Luc,  xv,  20) ; 
— hostility:  cuman  ongedn  hine,  come  against  him  (Boet.,  35,  6). 
Time:  ongedn  pinter  hdm  tugon,  against  winter  went  home  (Chr., 
109G). 

on-(ge)mong(e)  (^  258  ;  O.  Sax.  angimang)-\-A^i.    Place  :  Godum  on- 


IN  INNAN,  ,  IN-TO.— L^S,  MID,  NEAH.  165 

gemonge,  stood  among  the  Gods  (Psa.,  Ixxxi,  l)=bctpuh,  on  middum. 

Time  :  onmang  pam  gepinnan,  during  the  fight  (Chr.,  1106). 
in  innan  (inne),  on  innan  {inne)  (^  257)H-dat.,  ace.  :  ofne  07i  innan,  in 

the  oven  (Dan.,  259).     Ace. :  in  pone  ofn  innan,  into  the  oven  (Dan., 

238). 
on-middan,  -middum  {^  258)  +  dat.  :  on-middan  pam  hpxte,  amidst  the 

wheat  (Matt.,  xiii,  25) ;    omiddan  scedfum,  amid  your  sheafs  (Gen., 

xxxvii,  7).     See  to-middes. 
on  ufan  (^  257)  + ace.    Place  :  locuit  ufan  on  hclle,  looketh  from  above 

on  hell  (A.  R.,  25).    Time  :  on-ufan  harpest,  after  harvest  (Chr.,  923). 
on-uppan  (^  257)+dat.  :  on-uppan  pam  assan,  rode  upon  the  ass  (John, 

xii,  14). 
in-to  (^  254,  1,  3)  +  dat.  :  com  into  healle,  came  into  the  hall  (Matt.,  ix, 

23) ;  into  him,  went  unto  him  (Bed.,  3,  12)  ;   into  heom,  locked  the 

doors  onto  them  (Chr.,  1083). 

342.  laes  (§  259)  +  dat.  (instr.) : 

Number :  tpd  Ixs  XXX  {prittigum )  gedrd,  two  less  (than)  thirty  (of) 
years  (Chr.,  642). 

343.  mid  (§  254,  1)  +  dat.  (instr.),  ace.     Goth.  dat. 

I.  Dative  (instr.). 

Place — among  whom  :  ic  pxs  mid  Hunum,  I  was  among  the  Huns  (Trav., 
57) ; — near  whom  :  mid  Eormanrice,  I  was  with  Ermanric  (Trav.,  88). 

Time  :  mid  xrdiegc,  with  the  dawn  (B.,  126). 

Manner  :  mid  gefedn,  joyfully  (An.,  868) ;  mid  rihte,  rightfully  (Jud.,  97). 

Co-existence :  se  mid  Idcum  com,,  he  came  with  gifts  (C,  2103) ;  per  us 
7nid  pifum,  men  with  their  wives  (C,  1738) ;  (instrumental)  gepdt  him 
ham  7nid  P»j  here-tedme,  got  himself  home  with  the  booty  (C,  2162). 

Cause — means  :  mid  his  handum  gesceup,  with  his  hands  made  (C,  251)  ; 
(instrumental)  py  hungrc,  with  hunger  (Soul,  31) ; — instr.  :  mid  Jjj)  hille, 
with  the  sword  (C,  2931). 

II.  Accusative. 

Place  :  puna,  mid  usic,  dwell  among  us  (C,  2722)  ;   mid  aldor,  lived  with 

their  lord  (C,  20). 
Co-existence :   gepdt  mid  cyning,  he  departed  with  the  king  (C,  1210). 
Cause  :   sloh  mid  hdlige  hand,  smote  with  holy  hand  (C,  208,  18). 
Object  of  address  or  discrimination  :    sprwc  mid  hine,  spoke   with  him 

(Bed.,  2,  13) ;   demd  mid  unc  tpih,  judge  between  us  two  (C,  2253). 

344.  neah,  ne/t,  nveh;  near;  uehst  (§  259)  +  dat.    Goth.  dat. 
Place :  sed  ed  flopect  nedh  Jjskre  ccastre  pealle^  the  river  flows  nigh  the 

town's  wall  (Bed.,  1,7);  pille  ic  pam  lige  near,  I  will  go  nearer  to  the 
fire  (C,  700) ;  nehst  pibre  caxe,  (the  nave)  turns  nearest  the  axle  (Boet., 
39,7). 


166  NEFNE,  NEODAN,  OD,  OF,  OFER. 

345.  nefne,  ncmne  {ne  gif  nc,  Lat.  non  nisi?  but  see  §  259) 
4-  dative. 

Separation:  calle  fornam  ncmnc  fcdum  anwm,  took  off  all  except  a  few 
(B.,10B1). 

34G.  neodan  (§  257)  +  ace.  ?     See  he-neoitan^  nnder-neodan. 

He  pcard  purhscotcn  neodan  pivt  utter  breast,  he  was  shot  through  be- 
neath the  other  breast  (Oros,  3,  9) ;  so  Koch,  but  the  texts  have  under- 
ncodan.  The  0.  H.Ger.  nida  is  used  as  a  prep.,  as  is  0.  Norse  nedan 
w'\i\\  fyr,  but  I  have  not  found  neodan  so  used. 

347.  6^  (§  254,  3)  +  ace.,  (rare)  dat.     Gotb.  ace.,  dat. 

Space — extent  to  :  ealnc  vd  pone  peal  genuman,  they  took  all  as  far  as  to 

the  wall  (Bed.,  1,  12). 
Time:   od pone  da^g,  until  that  day  (B.,  2399).      Dative:  6d pisum  da-ge, 

unto  this  day  (Horn.,  ii,  132). 
Effect:  unrot  od  dead,  sorrowful  unto  death  (Mc,  xiv,  34). 
Degree  :  ealrd  od  nytenu,  (slew  the  first-born  of  the  Egyptians)  of  all  even 

to  the  cattle  (Psa.,  cxxxiv,  8). 

348.  of  (§  254,  2)  + dat.  Gothic  f// translates  airo,  fram  oft- 
ener  vito ;  in  space  and  time  relations  they  interchange ;  in  causal, 
af  is  material  cause,  fram  is  efficient ;  both  take  a  dative. 

Place  whence:  he  dstdh  of  pam  pxtcre,  he  came  out  of  the  water  (Matt., 
iii,  16). 

Time  :   of  pam  d<vge,  from  that  day  (John,  xi,  53). 

State  or  circumstances:  of  sleepe  onpoc,  awoke  from  sleep  (C,  249,  2) ; 
alys  us  of  yfie,  deliver  us  from  evil  (Matt.,  vi,  13) ; — any  object  of  sepa- 
ration (^  301) :  hdl  of  pysum,  whole  of  this  (Mc,  v,  34  ;  Luc,  vii,  21). 

Partitive  :   an  of  pysum,  one  of  these  (Matt.,  vi,  29). 

Cause — material:  of  eordan  geporht,  made  of  earth  (C,  365);  dfeddc 
of  fixum,  fed  with  fishes  (An.,  589) ;  redf  of  hedrum,  garment  of  hair 
(Matt.,  iii,  4) ;  —  source  :  of  Geatd  fruman  syndon  Cantpare,  from  the 
Geats  are  the  people  of  Kent  (Bed.,  483, 21); — author:  gehyrde  ofGode, 
heard  from  God  (John,  viii,  40)  ;  I  do  nothing  of  myself,  of  me  sylfum 
(viii,  28); — agent:  pxs  of  My  r  cum  gecoren,  was  chosen  by  the  Mer- 
cians (Chr.,  925). 

349.  ofer  (§  252,  h)  +  dat.,  ace.     Gothic  dat.,  ace. 

I.  Dative. 
Place — point  higher  than  :  ofer  since  salo  hlifian,  over  the  treasure  a  hall 
stand  (C,  2403);  —  surface  on  which:  pind  ofer  ydum,  wind  upon  the 
waves  (B.,  1907). 


ox,  TIL,  t6.  167 

Time:   ofer  pam  dnum  gedre,  (live)  over  (^longer  than)  the  one   year 

(Horn.,  ii,  14G). 
Degree:  ofo-  snupe  sclnende,  shining  above  (=  brighter  than)  snow  (Psa. 

C,  75). 
Rule  :   ofer  deoflum  pealded,  rules  over  devils  (Dan.,  7G5). 

Accusative  senses  are  frequently  found  with  datives. 

II.  Accusatives,  often  used  where  geond  or  sefter  might  be. 

Place — motion  or  presence  from  side  to  side  of  an  object :  ofer  sw.  gepi- 
ton,  over  sea  they  went  (Chr.,  885)  ;  pxron  pystru  ofer  ealle  eordan, 
there  was  darkness  over  all  the  earth  (Matt.,  xxvii,  45)  ; — above  it :  hlypp 
ofer  heafod,  (my  sin)  is  gone  over  my  head  (Psa.,  xxxvii,  4) ;  ofer  peal, 
got  over  a  wall  (Psa.,  xvii,  28)  ;  standende  ofer  hig,  standing  over  her 
(Luc,  iv,  39).  Dative  senses  :  ofer  href  hand  scedpedon,  showed  the 
hand  above  the  roof  (B.,  983). 

Time — extent:  ofer  ealne  divg,  through  the  whole  day  (Jud.,  28).  Dative 
sense  :   ofer  midne  ds'g,  after  mid-day  (C,  853),  common. 

Degree  :  ofer  ynce,  over  an  inch  (^db.,  67) ; — eminence  :  an  steorra  ofer 
udre  boorht,  a  star  bright  above  others  (Met.,  29,  19). 

Rule  :  pealded  ofer  eal  manna  cyn,  ruleth  over  all  mankind  (Psa.,  Ixv,  6). 

Conflict :  ofer  drihtnes  pord,  against  the  lord's  command  (C,  593) ;  ofer 
pillan,  against  the  will  (B.,  2409). 

Separation:   ofer  pxpen,  without  a  weapon  (B.,  685). 

Exciting  Object  (^  315) :  ic  blissige  ofer  plnrc  sprxce,!  rejoice  over  thy 
speech  (Psa.,  cxviii,  162). 

Theme  :  he  ofer  benne  sprxc,  he  talked  about  the  wounds  (B.,  2724). 

On  and  compounds,  see  in. 

350.  Samod  (^  255)+dat.  :  samod  drdage,  with  dawn  (B.,  1311). 

351.  til,  Northumbrian  sometimes  for  to  (§  259)4-dat.    Gotli., 
Ang.-Sax,  adjective;  O.Norse  preposition+gen. 

Cped  til  him,  said  to  them  (Matt.,  xxvi,  31)  ;  infinitive:  til  eotanne,  to 
eat  (Matt.,  xxvi,  17) ;  so  in  Orm. — common  in  Chaucer, WyclifTe  ;  often 
with  to  or  into;  used  in  time,  place,  and  dative  relations  as  late  as 
Spenser. 

352.  to  (§  254,  3)  +  dat.  (rare  ace,  gen.,  instr.).      Goth.  dat. 
(rare  ace). 

Place  —  end  of  motion  or  extent :  he  to  healle  geong,  he  to  the  hall  went 
(B.,  925)  ;  hu  hcdh  to  hefone,  how  high  to  heaven  (Boet.,  35,  4) ;  bescoh 
to  me,  look  at  me  (Psa.,  xii,  3)=on+acc.  ; — after  verbs  of  seeking,  ask- 
ing :  sxcce  scccan  to  Ileorote,  seek  a  fight  at  Heorot  (B.,  1990)  ;  dhsude 
to  Frysum,  asked  among  the  Frisians  (B.,  1207)  =from.    Compare  ,rt,  on. 

Time — end  of  duration  :  dOOOO  pinlrd  to  phmm  dedddu'ge,  30000  years  to 


ICS  TO,  TO-EACAN,  TU-PEAKD. 

thy  death-day  (Soul,  37);  —  when:  to  dxgc  pissitm,  to-day  (C,  1031); 
to  non-tidc,  at  noon-tide  (Mc,  xv,  31) ;  —  how  long:  to  langre  hptlc,  for 
a  long  time  (C,  489). 

Degree  :  gc  ctad  to  fijUc,  ye  shall  cat  to  fullness  (Lev.,  xxvi,  5). 

Price  :  gcscahl  to  prim  liund  pencgum,  sold  for  three  hundred  pence  (Mc, 
xiv,  5). 

Order:  hehstne  to  him,  highest  next  to  him  (C,  254). 

Likeness :  God  gesceop  man  to  his  anlicnessc,  God  made  man  in  his  like- 
ness (Gen.,  i,  27). 

End  of  action — object  added  to  :  to  his  anlicnessc,  (add  an  ell)  to  his  stat- 
ure (Luc,  xii,  25)  ;  gecleofod  to  minum  gomum,  cleaved  to  my  gums 
(Psa.,  xxi,  13) ; — of  address  or  gesture  :  cpxd  to  him,  said  to  him  (Matt., 
viii,  7) ;  gebuge  to,  bow  to  a  worse  God  (Jul.,  361)  ; — condition  :  dgeaf 
pif  to  gepealde,  gave  a  wife  into  his  power  (C,  1867); — act  prepared 
for :  to  gefeohte  gearu,  ready  for  fight  (Num.,  xxi,  33) ; — purpose  :  lig  to 
prsece  sende,  sent  fire  for  vengeance  (C.,  2584).  Factitives :  ceorfon 
to  sticcon,  cut  to  pieces  (Lev.,  i,  6) ;  pe  hahbad  Abraham  to  fxder,  we 
have  Abraham  as  father  (Matt.,  iii,  9) ;  hine  to  sylfcpale  nemnad,  name 
him  a  suicide  (Ex.,  330,  24). 
IL  Accusatives  (rare). 

Place:  gongan  to  Galileam,  go  to  Galilee  (Sat.,  527).  Time:  to  mor- 
gen,  this  morning  (C,  2438) ;  to  dxg,  to-day  (Psa.,  ii,  7).  Condition: 
to  dead  dcman,  doom  to  death  (Gu.,  521).  To  ham  faran,  go  home  (B., 
124) ;  to  honda,  at  hand  (Gu.,  102) ;  to  gcpeald?  (Jul.,  86) ;  to  sod,  in 
truth ;  and  some  other  adverbial  phrases  are  possibly  accusatives. 
in.  Genitives — mostly  with  pxs,  hpxs,  middes :  to  pxs,  to  such  a  de- 
gree (B.,  1616),  thither  (B.,  2410)  ;   to  hpxs,  whither  (C.  Exod.,  192)  ;   to 

middes  dscges,  at  mid-day  (Psa.,  xxxvi,  6). 

IV.  Instrumental :  to  hpi,  wherefore  (Horn.,  ii,  134). 

V.  Infinitive — purpose  or  end :  mail  is  me  to  feran,  it  is  time  for  me 
to  go  (B.,  316).  Gerund:  he  com  cordan  to  demanne,  he  came  to  judge 
the  earth  (Psa.,  xcvii,  8). 

to-eacan  (^  258)--t-dat.  :  to-edcan  Jjum,  in  addition  to  these  (Boet.,26, 2). 

to-foran  (^  257)  +  dat.  Place  :  toforan  him  gegaderode,  gathered  be- 
fore him  (Matt.,  xxv,  32).  Time  :  toforan  Jjam  dxge,  before  the  day 
(Chr.,1106). 

to-gegnes,  -genes,  -gednes  (^  258)-t-dat.,  ace  :  him  togednes  rdd,  rode 
against  him  (B.,  1893).  Time  :  togednes  Edstron,  against  Easter 
(Chr.,  1095).     Ace.  (Gen.,  xiv,  17).     See  further  ongegn. 

to-middes  (^  258) -f- gen.,  dat. :  td-middes  heard,  in  the  midst  of  them 
(John,  viii,  3).  Dative  :  to-middes  p&m  pxterum,  amidst  the  waters 
(Gen.,  i,  6). 

to-peard,  -peardes  (^^  259  ;  251,  1)  :  topard  Huntendune,  lie  toward 
Huntingdon  (Chr.,  656) ;  ferdon  topardes  Ou,  went  towards  Ou  (Chr., 
1094). 


PURH,  UFAN,  UNDER.  169 

t6-pi(tere  (^^  255,  359)+dat.,  ace.  :  prddum  topidere,  answer  to  (  = 
against)  enemies  (Cri.,  185) ;  pig  topidere,  to  hold  against  a  fight  (Ex., 
341,  20). 

353.  l^urh  (§  253,  3)  +acc.  (rare  dat.,  gen.).     Goth.  ace. 

Place — motion  into  and  out  at  the  opposite  side  :  gdn  purh  dure  n&dle 
edge,  go  through  a  needle's  eye  (Luc.,xviii,  25) ;  purh  hcord  midlen,  went 
through  their  midst  (Luc,  iv,  30) ;  —  simple  extent  {=^geond):  l&rende 
purh  ealle  7«^eam,  teaching  throughout  all  Judea  (Luc,  xxiii,  5). 

Time  :  purh  ealne  dxg,  through  the  whole  day  (Psa.,  Ixxiii,  21)  ;  Jmrh 
sl&p,  (spoke  to  him)  during  sleep  (C,  2641). 

Cause — agent:  pxs  geporht  purh  hine,  was  made  by  him  (John,  i,  10); 
— means  :  purh  dryhtnes  pord,  (light  was  named  day)  by  God's  word  (C, 
130);  —  motive:  pnirh  feondscipe,i\ixov.gh.  hatred  (C,  610)  ;  lust  (Ex., 
23,  15);  —  reason:  purh  pxt,  \aX.  propter  hoc,  for  that  reason  (Gen., 
xxxvii,  5)  ;  oath  (Lat.  per)  :  ic  sperige  purh  me  silfnc,  I  swear  by  my- 
self (Gen.,  xxii,  16).     See  07i. 

Manner:  purh  endebyrdnesse  singan,  sing  in  order  (Bed.,  4,  24)  ;  demon 
purh  his  d&da,\u(ige  according  to  his  deeds  (Sat.,  623).  Co-existence  : 
cennan  pmrli  sdr  rnicel  sunu,to  bring  forth  with  pain  many  a  son  (C,  924). 
IL  Dative — place  :  Jjer-h  hiord  middum,  went  through  their  midst  (North. 

Luc.  iv,  30) ;  means :  purh  costnungum  gepenian,  seduce  by  temptations 

(Job,  165). 

in.  Genitive — means  :  geclaensude  purh  pxs  huselganges,  purified  by  the 

sacrament  (Horn.,  ii,  2G6). 

ut  })urh>Semi-Sax.  Jmrh  M<>Eng.  throughout  is  common. 

354.  ufan,  adv.     See  bn/an,  omifan. 

355.  under  (§  255)  -fdat.,  ace.     Goth.  wwf7ar,  +  acc;  undaro^ 
-)-dat.     O.  Sax.  undar^  -er  ;  O.  H.  Ger.  untar ;  O.  Norse  undr. 

Place — where  its  object  would  fall,  or  overshadow :  pu  pmre  under  pam  fic- 
treope,  thou  wast  under  the  fig-tree  (John,  i,  48) ;  under  beorge,  at  the  foot 
of  the  mountain  (B.,2559) ; — or  cover,  or  enclose  :  under  hearmlocon,  un- 
der lock=in  prison  (El.,  695  ;  C.,  6,  19) ; — dress  :  under  helmc,  helmeted 
(B.,  342,  2539)  ;  under  gyldnum  bedge,  wearing  a  golden  diadem  (B., 
1103). 

Time  :  under  pdm,  Lat.  inter  hxc,  in  the  midst  of  these  things  (Chr.,  876) ; 
so  in  O.  Sax. 

Personal — rank,  rule :  pcgnds  under  me,  servants  under  me  (IMatt.,  viii,  9) ; 
under  Northmannum,  under  the  rule  of  the  Northmen  (Chr.,  942) ;  under 
oyj/^ea/^e,  under  authority  (901). 
IL  Accusative. 

Place — after  motion  :  under  hruf  gef or,  went  under  a  roof  (C,  1360) ; — di- 


170  UNDEK-NEODAN,  UPPAN,  UTAN,  PANA,  PID. 

icction  :  under  b:vc,  backwards  (C.,25G3) ; — extent  like  a  dative  :  under 
rudcrd  nim,  under  the  expanse  ot"  the  heavens  (C,  116G). 
Personal:  under  hclle  cin,  among  the  race  of  hell  (Ex.,  99,5),  so  O.  Sax- 
on ;  under  hand  sj^eordcs,  (give)  to  the  sword  (sunder  the  hand  of;  (Psa., 
Ixii,  8).  ■  ' 

under-neodan   (+dat).     Not  in  Layamon,  Orm. ;   rare  O. 

English. 
jhvs  undcrnxitcn  hisfute,  (support  which)  was  underneath  his  foot  (Chr., 
1070). 

356.  uppan  (§  257)  +dat.,  ace.  Goth,  ii/pa,  adv.;  O.  Saxon 
iqjpan, -en  ;  O.  Norse  upd;  O.  H.  G.  i1/an.  I'erhaps  two  words, 
derivative  up2)a)i<Ciip,  SLud  compouiul  t(p-\-on,ha,VQ  mixed. 

Place — on  a  high  object :  ge-offrd  Imie  uppon  dure  dune.,  offer  him  upon  a 

hill  (Gen.,xxii,  2)  ;  uppan  assene,x'\Ae  upon  an  ass  (Matt.,xxi,  5)  ; — over: 

him  uppan,  above  him  the  cross  was  raised  (El.,  886). 
Time  :  uppon  Edstron,  after  Easter  (Chr.,  1095). 
Separation  :  uppon  him  genum,en  ha>fde,  had  taken  from  them  (Clir.,  1 106). 

II.  Accusative. 
Place — after  motion  :  me  dhuf  uppon  hedhne  stdn,  raised  me  upon  a  high 

stone  (Psa.,  xxvi,  6) ;  but  dat.  and  ace.  mix  (Exod.,  xxxiv,  2). 
Time  :  uppon  Pentecosten,a,t  Pentecost  (Chr.,  1095)  ; — succession:  segdcr 

uppon  interne,  one  upon  another  (Chr.,  1094). 
Opposition  :   uppon  pone  earl  pan,  fought  against  the  earl  (Chr.,  1095) ; 

tealde,  charged  against  the  king  (Chr.,  1094). 

357.  utan  (§  257)  +genilive.     Goth,  itt ana -\-geu. 

Place  :   innon  landes  odde  uton  landes,  within  or  out  of  the  land  (^(/5,  vi, 
8,  2).     See  b-utan,  on-b-utan, pid-utan,  ymb-iitan. 

358.  pana  (§  259) +genitive.     Goth,  vans  ;  O.  N.  vam',  adj. 
dnes  pana  prittigum,  thirty  less  one  (Bed.,  1,  1).     Same  idiom  in  Gothic, 

etc.     See  ^3 17,  J. 

359.  pid  (§  254,  1)  +acc.,  dat.,  gen.  Goth,  vipra  -face;  O. 
Norse  ace,  dat.  In  senses  analogous  to  Latin  contra^  opposite ; 
but  gradually  absorbing  niid^  §  343.  The  accusative  and  dative 
are  not  Avholly  separable  in  sense ;  they  often  interchange  in  the 
same  passage. 

I.  Accusative. 
Space — beside,  along  :   sum  feol  pid  pone  peg,  some  (seed)  fell  along  the 
way  (Luc,  viii,  5) ;  code  pid  pa  sue,  went  along  the  sea-side  (Matt.,  iv,  IB)  ; 


PIDER,  PIB-iEFTAX,  PIB-EASTAN.  171 

pid peal,  (set  their  shields)  against  the  wall  (B,,  326)  ;  pitt  pxs  Hxlcndcs 
fct,  (sat)  by  the  Savior's  feet  (Luc,  x,  39) 
Other  Relations — association:  he  pid pulf,  he  with  the  wolf  (stripped  the 
dead)  (B.,3027) ;  hagol  pid  fyr  gemenged,  hail  with  fire  mixed  (Exod., 
ix,  24) ; — conversation  :  pid  Abraham  sprecan,  to  talk  with  Abraham  (C, 
2405) ; — comparison  :  pid  sunnan  leoht,  (the  brightness  of  the  stars  is  not 
to  be  set)  beside  sunlight  (Met.,  6, 7) ; — hostility  :  pan  pid paldend,  fought 
against  the  lord  (C,  303) ;  yrre  pid  me,  angry  against  me  (Gen.,  xli,  10)  ; 
— defence  :  unc  pid  hronfixds  perian,  to  guard  us  against  whales  (B.,  540)  ; 
pid  hearm,  against  harm  (C,  245,  6)  ;  —  friendship,  agreement:  beo  pid 
Gedtds  glssd,he  with  the  Geats  friendly  (B.,  1173);  acordedan  pid  hine, 
they  agreed  with  him  (Chr.,  1120). 

II.  Dative. 

Place — position  opposite  :  sxpeal  uplang  gestod  pid  Israhelum,  the  sea- 
wall stood  upright  next  to  the  Israelites  (C,  197,  8) ; — from  far  to  near 
{i^  299) :  tedh  hine  pid  hijre  peard,  drew  him  toward  her  (Jud.,  99)  ;  so 
after  go  near  (Sat.,  249);  grasp  after  (B.,  439);  strike  against  (B., 
1566) ; — from  union  to  near  :  gesundrude  leoht  pid  Ijcostrum,  separated 
light  from  darkness  (C.,  127). 

Other  Relations — association  :  teofanude  wghpylc  pid  odrum,  associated 
each  with  the  others  (Sch.,  44)  ;  mengan  lige  pid  sode,  mingle  falsehood 
with  truth  (EL,  307) ; — conversation:  pid  Abrahame  5;?ra7c,  talked  with 
Abraham  (C,  2303) ; — exchange  :  he  -sealde  wlcon  sinne  penig  pid  hys 
dwges  peorce,he  paid  to  each  a  penny  for  his  day'^  work  (Matt.,  xx,  2); 
— opposition:  pid  Grdc  punnon,  fight  against  God  (B.,  113);  put  pinde 
roped,  rows  against  the  wind  (Ex.,  345,  12)  ;  pid  rihte,  against  right  (B., 
144) ; — defence  :  helpan  pid  lige,  help  against  fire  (B.,  2341) ;  pid  cpealme 
gebearh  cnihtum,  shield  the  youths  from  death  (C,  246,  7) ; — separation  : 
mod  pid  dredmum  gedxldc,  mind  from  enjoyments  sundered  (Ex.,  146, 18). 

III.  Genitive. 

Place — towards  an  object  exciting  desire  or  dread  (see  ^  315) :  beseah  un- 
derbxc  pid  pxs  pifes,  (Orpheus)  looked  back  after  the  woman  (Eurydice) 
(Boet.,  35,  6)  ;  let  fieogan  hafoc  pid  pics  holies,  let  the  hawk  fly  to  the 
wood  (By.,  8)  ;  pid  pxs  fivstengeates  folc  onette,  toward  the  city  gate 
folks  hastened  (Jud.,  162) ;  hnuh  dlcdt  pid pxs  cn^/c5,  louted  low  before 
the  angel  (Num.,  xxii,  31). 

Abstract — defence  :  hleo  pid  hungres,  protection  against  hunger  (El.,  616)  ; 
pid  yfeld  gefreo  us,  deliver  us  from  evils  (Ily.,  6,  31). 

pider  (^  255)+acc.  :  pider  me  pseron,  they  were  against  me  (Psa.,  h\ 

5).     See  td-pidere. 
pi(t-aeftan  (^  257)+acc.  :  pid-xftan  his  fct,  hc\\mA  at  his  feet  (Luc.,vii, 

38  ;  jNIrc,  v,  27).     Better  pid  aflan. 
piil-eastau,  -nordan,  -siidan,  -\-a.cc.,  dat. :  next  eastward  of,  etc.  (Oros., 

1,1). 


172  PID-F0RAN.—YMB(E).- ADJECTIVE. 

l^id-foran  (^  257)4-acc.  :  pidforan  pd  sunnan,  before  the  sun  (Boat., 
39,  13). 

pid-geondan  (^  257)+acc. :  pidgcondan  lorduncn,  beyond  Jordan  (Matt., 

iii,  5). 
pid-innan  {\  257)  + ace.  :  pidinnan  pintan-ccastra,  within  Winchester 

(Chr.,9G3). 
pid-utan  {^  257)+acc.,  dat.     Place  :  pidutan  pd  plcstdpc,  without  the 

camp  (Lev.,  xxiv,  14).    Dat.  (Oros.,  2, 4,  C) ;— maimer  :  ivlcon  pxpnon, 

without  any  weapons  (Chr.,  1087). 
pid  peard  (separate)  :  pid  heofonds  pcard,  towards  lieaven  (Horn.,  i, 

46)  ;  pid  hire  peard,  towards  her  (Jud.,  99). 

360.  ymb(e),  cmh{e)  (§  254,  2)  -I- ace.  (rare  dat.).    O.  Sax.  ace. ; 
O.  Norse  ace,  dat. 

Place  :   gyrdcl  ymhe  Icndcnu,  girdle  around  his  loins  (Matt.,  iii,  4)  ;  ymb 

June  sxt,  (a  multitude)  sat  around  him  (Mc.,  iii,  32). 
Time :  (1)  ijmb  dntid,  about  the  first  hour  (B.,  219)  ;  (2)  ymb  pucan,  after 

a  week   (C,  2769);   (3)  ymb  due  niht,  within  one   night  (Chr.,  878)  ; 

(4)  ymb  preo  niht,  three  nights  before  (Sat.,  426). 
Theme  :  ford  sprecan  ymb  Grendel,  to  speak  about  Grendel  (B.,  2070) ; 

ymb  pd  fyrde  pencean,  to  think  about  the  expedition  (C.,408).     So  after 

to  ivondcr  (EL,  959) ;  care  (B.,  1536) ;  strive  (Gn.  C,  55) ;  and  the  like  ; 

hig  dydon  ymbe  hyne,  they  acted  about  him=:they  did  to  him  (Matt.,  xvii, 

12). 
Dative  (generally  after  its  case) :  him  ymbe  gestodon,  around  him  stood  (B., 

2597) ;  sprxc  ymb  his  mxge,  spoke  of  his  kinsman  (Hell.,  25). 

ymb-utan  {^  257)+acc. ;— place  :  licgad  me  ymbHtan,  lieth  round  about 
me  (C,  382) ;  ymbntan  eop,  (why  seek)  without  you  (what  is  within) 
(Boet.,11,  2) 


ADJECTIVE. 

361.  An  Adjective  agrees  with  its  Substantive  in  gender, 
mimher,  and  case. 

{a.)  This  rule  applies  to  the  articles,  adjective  pronouns,  and  participles. 

{b.)  An  infinitive  or  clause  may  take  an  adjective  in  the  neuter  singular  : 
leofre  is  us  gefonfisc,  to  catch  fish  is  pleasanter  to  us  (^If.)  ;  gdd  is  pset  ic 
on  God  hyht  sette,  it  is  good  that  I  hope  in  God  (Psa.,  Ixxii,  23). 

(c.)  Indefinite.  An  adjective  is  often  used  indefinitely  in  the  masculine 
for  a  person,  or  neuter  for  a  thing  :  se  blinda,  gif  he  blindne  hut,  the  blind, 
if  he  lead  the  blind  (Matt.,  xv,  14) ;  me  pyrse  gelamp,s,  worse  thing  hap- 
pened to  me  (Sat.,  175). 

{d.)  Noun  understood :  Englisc  nc  cj/rfe,  did  not  know  English  (speech) 
(Bed.,  3,  3) ;  phi  spydre,  thy  right  (hand)  (Matt.,  vi,  3). 


ADJECTIVE,  STEONG  OR  WEAK.  173 

(e.)  Collectives  singular  may  take  a  plural  by  synesis :  seo  heard 
purdon  ddnincene,  the  herd  were  drowned  (Mc,  5, 13). 

(/.)  Copulative  singulars  may  take  a  plural,  or  have  a  repeated  singu- 
lar understood  :  pAron  gehdlgode  Eadhxd,  and  Bosa  and  Edta,  Edhed,  and 
Bosa,  and  Eata  were  consecrated  (Bed.,  4,  12);  eddig  is  se  innod,  and  pa 
ireost,  blessed  is  the  womb,  and  the  breast  (Lc,  11, 27). 

(g.)  Partitives.  Xeuter  partitives  may  be  used  for  agreeing  adjectives 
(^  312,  a) :  ndn  [img  graies,  nothing  green  (Exod.,  10, 15). 

Steoxg    or  Weak,  §§   103+. 
362.  The  weak  forms  are  used  after  the  definite  article,  demon- 
stratives, and  possessives ;  and  often  in  attributive  vocatives,  in- 
strumentals,  and  genitives.     The  comparative  forms  are  all  weak : 

1.  Article  :  se  ofermoda  cyning,  the  proud  king  (C.,338).  Exceptions 
are  rare:  sio  hdlig  rorf,  the  holy  rood  (EL,  720);  se  w/cr,  the  other 
(B.,  2061).     For  present  participles,  see  ^  119,  h. 

The  article  is  sometimes  omitted  before  the  weak  form  of  a  current  epi- 
thet, especially  in  epic  forms:  hrefn  5/aca,  black  raven  (B.,  1801); 
mihtigan  dryhtne,  mighty  lord  (B.,  1398). 

Demonstrative  :  of  pissum  l&nan  life,  in  this  long  life  (C,  1211). 
Exceptions  occur  :  on  JAssum  l&num  life  (Kr.,  109). 

2.  Possessive  :  minne  strongUcan  stol,  my  strong  throne  (C,  36G). 
The  article  is  often  inserted :  min  se  heofenlica  fxdcr,  my  heavenly 
father  (Matt.,  xviii,  35).  Strong  forms  are  frequent:  minne  spetne 
hldf,  my  sweet  bread  (Psa.,  ci,  4).  His,  and  other  possessives  of  the 
the  third  person,  are  regularly  followed  by  a  strong  form  or  inserted 
article :  mid  his  dgenum  redfe,  with  his  own  robe  (Matt,  xxvii.,  31) ; 
his  se  deora  sunn,  his  dear  son  (Sat.,  243)  ;  slnne  driorigne  (B.,  2789). 

3.  Vocative :  hlindan  latteopds,  blind  guides  (Matt.,  xxiii,  16) ;  ge 
blindan,  ye  blind ;  ge  dysigan,  ye  foolish  (Matt.,  xxiii,  17).  For 
other  examples,  and  inserted  article,  see  ^  289. 

4.  Instrumental :  Icuhtan  spcorde,  with  a  bright  sword  (B.,  2492). 

5.  Genitive  :  l£nan  lifes,  (end)  of  a  long  life  (B.,  2845);  so  C,  1,  13  ; 
231,13;  Ex.,  4, 25;  11,4. 

6.  Comparatives :  Iddran  landscipe,  (I  never  saw  a)  loathlier  landscape 
(C,  37G)  ;  pxs  betera  ponne  ic,  he  was  better  than  I  (B.,  469). 

303.  In  other  cases  strong  forms  are  used. 

1.  No  definitive :  Jn'i  cart  heard  man,  thou  are  a  hard  man  (Matt,  xxv, 
24); — vocative:  pit  riht  cyning,  ihoM  true  king  (Ex., 2, 13); — instru- 
mental: rcdde  Ze^-e,  with  red  flame  (C,  44);  —  genitive:  mihtiges 
Godes  7no</,  mighty  God's  wrath  (C,  403); — predicate:  Eddige  synd 
/(a,  blessed  are  they  (Matt.,  v,  3); — superlative  :  ^e  pxs  lcof6st,\iQ  was 
dearest  (B.,  1296).     For  exceptions,  see  over,  ^  362. 


17-i  PERSONAL  PRONOUNS. 

3.  With  the  indefinite  article  :  of  slogan  dinne  Brytliscne  cyning,  slew 

a  British  king  (Chr.,508)  ;  ibnne  leofcstne  siinu,  (he  had)  a  dearest  son 

(Mrc,  12,G). 

364.  These  uses  are  established  in  Gothic,  except  that  with  the  possess- 

ives,  and  perhaps  the  demonstratives,  of  some  of  which  examples  do  not 

occur.     The  weak  form  has  spread  in  High  German.     See  §  107. 


PRONOUNS. 
3G5.  A  Substantive  Pronoun  agrees  with  its  antecedent 

in  gender^  number,  and  person. 

8G6. — 1.  Personal  Pronouns,  §§  13  0+. 

1.  Omitted  subject : — imperative  (regular):  aris,  arise  (thou)  (Matt.,ii, 
20) ; — repeated  in  a  concessive  clause  :  jmnige  pser  he  punige,  dwell 
(he)  where  he  may  dwell  {JEdx.,  5,  6) ; — reflexives:  pende  hine,  (he) 
turned  him  (C.,34,  33); — other  cases  (rare):  ndt  pufare,  (I)  know  not 
whether  thou  come  (C,  34,  2) ;  bist  ful  hdlgan  hyhtes,  (thou)  art  full 
of  holy  joy  (Ex.,  4,  24). 

2.  Repeated  subject :  ^  287,  definitive. 

3.  First  person  plural  for  singular  by  authors  and  preachers  :  nu  pille 
pa  reccan,  now  will  we  (I)  recount  (Ores.,  1, 1, 11)  ; — so  (Horn.,  2, 446). 
Kings  say  ic,  or  pe  for  themselves  and  council :  ic  JEdelstdn  cyning 
(LL.,  1) ;  pe  (LL.  Ina.  1,  1),  but  Beowulf  used  the  plural  majestatis 
(B.,  958,  1652)  ;  in  Norman  French  nous  (LL.  William,  1,  41).  Ye 
and  you  as  pronomen  reverentiaj  appear  first  in  Old  English. 

4.  Dual: — interchange  with  plural:  gelyfe  gyt, — j-jmiad  pset  ge  ne 
5cco-on,  believe  ye  *  *  take  heed  that  ye  tell  not  (Matt.,  ix,  28-30) ; — 
strengthened  by  bu,  bu  tu,  bd,  bd  fpd  (^  141)  :  pit  bu  druncon,  we  two 
both  drank  (Bed.,  5,  3) ; — with  single  appositive  :  iinc,  Adame,  to  us, 
(me  and)  Adam  (C,  387,  see  ^  287,  g). 

5.  Hit  may  represent  a  definite  object  of  any  gender  or  person  :  etad 
pisne  hldf,  hit  is  min  lichama,  eat  this  bread,  it  is  my  body  (Horn.,  2, 
266)  ;  hit  (seo  sunne)  pxre  birnende  stdn,  it  (the  sun)  is  burning  stone 
(A.  R.  Ett.,  39) ;  ic  hit  eom,  I  am  it  =  he  (Matt.,  xiv,  27)  ;  ic  sylf  hit 
eom  (Luc,  xxiv,  39) ;  pit  hit  cart  (Matt.,  xiv,  28)  ; — or  a  clause  :  hit  is 
dpriten,  ne  costnu  pu,  it  is  written.  Do  not  thou  tempt  (Matt,  iv,  7) ; — 
an  indefinite  subject — an  operation  of  nature  or  chance :  hit  sntpd,  it 
snows  (^If.  Gr.,  24) ;  hit  gclimpcd,  it  happens  (B.,  1753) ; — a  date  :  hit 

^  pxs  pinter,  it  was  winter  (John  x,  22) ;  hit  eefenlcecp,  it  is  evening  (Luc, 
xxiv,  29) ; — appetites,  notions,  and  the  like :  (rare)  hit  licode  Hcrodc, 
it  pleased  Herod  (Matt.,  xiv,  6). 

6.  Indefinite  persons  are  denoted  by  hi:  ponne  hig  pyriad  eo/?,  when 
men  shall  revile  you  (Matt.,v,  11). 


POSSESSIVES.— DEMONSTRATIVES.  175 

7.  Cases  mix,  dative  me  with  accusative  mec,  pe  with  pec,  us  with  usic, 
cup  with  eopic.  The  dative  finally  displaced  the  accusative  ;  so  also 
liave  him  and  them  in  English.  Nominatives  also  give  place  to  the 
oblique  cases :  he  is  strongra  p>on  mec,  he  is  stronger  than  me  =  I 
(Matt.,  iii,  11,  Northum.)  ;  himself,  etc.,  see  ^  3GG,  10. 

8.  Personal  pronouns  are  often  reflexives  :  tc  me  reste,  I  rest  myself 
(Ex.,  494,  8)  ;  restad  cop,  rest  yourselves  OElfd.,  3) ;  gegadorude  micel 
folc  hit,  a  great  crowd  gathered  itself  (Chr.,  921).     See  10. 

9.  Personals  reciprocals  :  hig  hetpcox  him  cpivdon,  they  said  among 
themselves  (Mrc,  1,  27). 

10.  Strengthened  by  agen,  an,  self  {(or  declensions,  see  ^^  131+) :  phi 
dgen  beam,  thy  own  child  (C,  144,  27) ;  hire  dgen  beam,  her  own 
child  (158,  6)  ;  pinum  dgnum  fotum  (173,  2) ;  ic  ana  xtbxrst,\  alone 
escaped  (Job,  165) ;  ic  selfa,!  myself  (C,  35,  11);  pu  selfa,  thyself 
(36, 12)  ;  Jju  sylfa,  feminine  (Ex.  262,  32)  ;  ge  sylfe  (John,  iii,  28) ;  he 
sylf  (C,  35,  18).  Accusative  for  nominative  :  pe  sylf  cyme,  thyself 
come  (Ex.,  8,  8)  ;  Pilatus  hym  sylf  uprdt,  Pilate  himself  wrote  all  this 
(Nic,  34) ; — reflexive  :  lufd  phine  nchstan  spa  pe  sylfne,  love  thy 
neighbor  as  thyself  (Matt.,  xix,  19) ; — possessive  :  pAn  sylfes  beam,  thy 
own  child  (C.  176,  34) ;  hire  self  re  sund,hex  own  sons  (B.,1115); — 
pronoun  omitted  :  seolfes  bl&dum,  its  own  shoots  (C,  248,  17). 

11.  Personals  with  pe  as  relatives,  see  relatives. 

Possessive s,  §  13  2. 

367. — 1.  The  possessives  couple  with  a  demonstrative  without  weak 
flexion  :  pes  mm  sunu  pxs  dead,  this  my  son  was  dead  (Luc.  xv,  24) ; 
min  se  gccorena  sunu,  my  chosen  son  (Matt.,  iii,  17). 

2.  Sin  and  his:  his  hcarran,  drihten  sinne,  his  lord  (C,  19,  20).     See 

^  132,5. 

3.  For  genitive  ending  :  Enac  his  cynryn,  Anak's  children  (Num.,  xiii, 
29) ;  Gode  his  naman  c'igdan,  call  on  God  his  name  (Psa.  xcviii,  6), 
doubtful ;  common  in  Layamon  and  Old  English,  where  also  her:  Pallas 
her  glass^=^Pallas''s  glass  (Bacon). 

4.  Omitted  :  mid  handum,  (I  can  work)  with  my  hands  (C,  18,  27). 

5.  Without  its  substantive  :  callc  mine  synd  pine,  all  mine  are  thine 
(John,  xvii,  10);  heard  is  hcofcnan  rice,  theirs  is  heaven's  kingdom 
(Matt.,  v,  10).  In  Layamon,  /icorc?z>01d  Engl.  /ieru?i>Engl.  hers; 
ourun'^ours,  etc. 

D  E  M  O  X  S  T  K  A  T  I  V  E  S,  §   13  3. 

1.  Se,  seu,  1)021,  as  an  article. 

368,  The  definite  article  in.irks  it3  object, 

(a.)  As  before  mentioned  or  -well  known :  porhte  fen,  and  smyrede 
mid  pjam  fcnne,he  made  clay,  and  anointed  with  the  clay  (John,  ix,  6) ;  se 


176  THE  ARTICLE  USED,  OMITTED. 

Ilivlcnd,  the  Savior  (Luc,  x,  38) ;  Jjiere  eon/an,  the  earth  (John,  viii,  0) ; — 
proper  names  :  Illodp'tgcs  sunu.  Sc  Hluitp'ig pxs  Carles  brudor  (Chr.,  885)  ; 
JKvne  Hcrodcm,  the  (fainoiis)  Ilerod  (Matt.,  ii,  22). 

(6.)  As  further  described,  hy  a  clause  :  Jjam  bare  pur  hco  innc  Ixg,  the 
bower  wherein  she  lay  (Ap.,  1) ;  se  Beopulf,  se  pe  pid  Brecan  punne,  the 
Beowulf,  who  fought  with  Breca  (B.,  506) ; — by  an  appositive  :  pxs  muntes 
Syon,  the  mount  Sion  (Psa.,  xlvii,  2) ; — by  an  adjective  :  pxt  betste  hors, 
the  best  horse  (Bed.,  3,  14)  ;  se  hdlga  Gudldc,  the  holy  Guthlac  (St.  G.,  4)  ; 
seo  Magdaknisce  Maria,  the  Rlary  called  Magdalene  (Matt.,  xxvii,  5G) ; — 
by  a  possessive  :  pain  hldforde  pxs  Jn'iscs,  the  lord  of  the  house  (Bed.,  3, 
10) ; — by  relation  to  other  objects  mentioned  (often  possessive)  :  gefyldon 
pa  od  pone  brerd,  they  filled  it  to  the  (=its)  brim  (John,  ii,  7) ;  pam  geate, 
(into  the  sheepfold)  at  the  (=its)  gate  (John,  x,  1). 

(c.)  As  a  definite  -whole  :  pa  ludeds,  the  Jews  (John,  vii,  1)  ;  pa  clxn- 
/2eo?-^a?j, blessed  are  the  pure  in  heart  (Matt.,  v,  8); — a  personified  abstract: 
se  7^i5c?07n,  Wisdom  (Boet.,  3,  3). 

3G9.  The  article  is  often  omitted  where  it  might  be  used.  It  is  used  less  in  Anglo- 
Saxon  than  in  Gothic  or  Old  High  German,  and  very  rarely  in  the  oldest  poetry,  e.  g., 
twice  in  the  Traveler's  Song,  19  times  in  the  first  537  lines  of  Beo\vulf,  12  times  in  268  lines 
of  Ctedmou  (Grimm  D.  G.,  4,  429).  The  steadiest  uses  are  those  in  368,  b.  Proper  names 
of  places  and  times,  which  are  compounded  with  or  described  by  appellatives,  often  take 
the  article  without  further  reason.    Folk  names  under  c  var}'. 

(a.)  Marked  cases  of  the  omission  of  articles  are  (1)  after  a  genitive,  (2)  with  an  object 
compared,  (3)  with  a  negative,  (4)  superlatives,  (5)  copulative  or  disjunctive  singulars  mean- 
ing many,  (6)  a  repeated  word  in  correlation,  (7)  predicate  nominative,  (8)  factitive  object, 
(9),  after  prepositions  with  names  of  places,  parts  of  a  house,  parts  of  the  bod}*,  (10),  before 
an  attributive  adjective,  genitive,  or  appositive. 

(1)  Mid  Godes  gife,  by  God's  gift  (In.  LL.  1)  ;  pxs  folccs  priterds,  the 
scribes  of  the  people  (Matt.,  ii,  4,  so  oftenest) ;  pxre  Godes  liifan,  the  love 
of  God  (St.  G.,  2)  ;  ^  367,  1 ;  (2)  strengre  ponne  ruse,  more  fragrant  than 
(the)  rose  (Rid.,  41,  24) ;  (3)  peof  7ie  cymrf,  thief  comes  not  (John  x,  10); 
(4)  idesd  scenost,  fairest  of  women  (C,  626) ;  (5)  berad  bord  and  ord, 
(chosen  men)  bear  shield  and  spear  (El.,  1187)  ;  (6)  pxs  ddxled  pxtcr  of 
pxtrum,  then  was  parted  (the)  water  from  (the)  waters  (C,  152) ;  (7)  he 
pxs  man-slaga,  he  was  (a)  murderer  (John,  viii,  44)  ;  (8)  hine  heold  for 
fulne  cyning,  took  him  for  full  king  (Chr.,  1013)  ;  to  hldforde  (921)  ;  (9) 
on  sx,  on  (the)  sea  (Ap.,  19) ;  on  sande  (C,  242)  ;  xt  hiise,  at  home  (Psa., 
cxi,  3) ;  id  of  he  all  e,  out  of  (the)  hall  (B.,  663) ;  beforan  durd,  before  (the) 
door  (Mc,  11,  4)  ;  on  bed  gdn,  go  to  bed  (C,  2234)  ;  cpxdan  on  heortan, 
said  in  heart  (Psa.,  Ixxiii,  8) ;  xt  fotum  (B.,  500) ;  on  cneopum  (C.,  227,  2), 
etc.,  abundantly  ;  (10)  hxfdon  langne  speoran,  they  had  (a)  long  neck  (St. 
G.,  5) ;  ch/piendcs  stcfn,  the  voice  of  one  crying  (Matt.,  iii,  3) ;  JElfred 
cyni7?g-,  Alfred  king  (Chr.,  894). 

370.  The  article  with  an  adjective  is  frequent,  to  point  out  persons : 
se  dumba  sprxc,  the  dumb  spake  (Matt.,  ix,  33) ; — or  things  (rare):  pa 
topeardan,  the  future  things  (St.  G.,  13) ; — in  apposition  with  a  proper 
name:  Sidroc  se  geonga,  Sidroc  the  younger  (Chr.,  871) ; — so  also:  hellc 


DEMONSTRATIVES.  177 

pxre  hatarifheW  the  hot  (C,  362).  Just  so  participles:  pd  timhriendan, 
those  building  (Matt.,  xxi,  42)  ;  for  pdm  gecorenum,  for  the  chosen  (xxiv, 
22) ;  pd  geladodan,  those  invited  (xxii,  3). 

371.  Witli  a  numeral :  Jjd  tpelfe,  the  twelve  (Mc,  4, 10) ;  ]jxt  an  (Matt., 
V,  47)  ;  se  eahtoda  dxg,  the  eighth  day  (St.  G.,  3). 

372.  With  pronouns  :  pd  odre,  the  others  (Matt.,  xxvii,  49) ;  se  pe,  the 
which  (Bed.,  2,  5) ;  ealpxt  land,  all  the  land  (Matt.,  ix,  26)  ;  buiu  pd  scypu, 
both  the  ships  (Luc,  v,  7) ;  so  :  healfne  pone  speoran,  half  the  neck  (Jud., 
105) ; — possessives,  see  ^  367. 

373.  The  article  is  repeated  with  copulative  words  oftener  than  in  En- 
glish :  pxt  gold  and  pM  seolfor,  the  gold  and  the  silver  (Apol.,  14) ; — some- 
times a  plural  is  used  with  two  singulars  :  hijre  pd  leofstan  hldford  and  sunu, 
her  (the)  dearest  lord  and  son  (Chr.,  1093). 

Se,  seo,  l)?et;  l^es,  Jpeus,  J^is,  §  133. 

374.  Se  is  less  emphatic  than  l^es.  Both  denote  the  near  ob- 
ject, or  an  antecedent  to  a  rehative. 

1.  Se  is  often  nearly  the  third  pronoun  :  spungon  Jug  pone,  and  forleton 
hine,  they  beat  that  one  (him),  and  sent  him  away  (Mc,  xii,  3).  Note  seo 
>Eng.  sAe,  ^a>Eng.  they  ;  Lat.  hie. 

2.  pxt  and  pis  are  often  used  without  agreement  in  gender  or  number : 
])xt  pxs  god  cyning,  that  was  a  good  king  (B.,  11) ;  Ijset  pxron  P)d  xrestan 
scipu,  that  (those)  were  the  first  ships  (Chr.,  787)  ;  pis  is  seo  eorde,  this  is 
the  earth  (C,  1787) ;  pis  sint  pd  bebodii,  this  (these)  are  the  statutes  (Lev., 
xxvi,  46).     Compare  hit,  ^  366,  5.     German  es  smd. 

3.  Antecedent :  se  pe  bryde  hxfd,  se  is  brydguma,  he  is  bridegroom, 
(the  which),  who  has  the  bride  (John,  iii,  29) ;  pxt  pe  dcenned  is  offlxsce, 
J)xt  is  flxsc,  that  is  flesh,  the  which  is  born  of  the  flesh  (iii,  6) ;  rare  with 
pes  (John,  i,  15,  North.). 

4.  od pns,  till  now  (Bas.  Hex.,  6) ;  but  generally  these  two  ycars:=nu  tpd 
gear  (Gen.,xlv,  6). 

5.  This  and  that=the  former,  the  latter,  are  not  expressed  by  ]jis,  Jjxt ; 
but  se  xrra,  se  xflera  (Bed.,  4,  23).  A  discriminated  remoter  object  is 
rare. 

6.  py  md,  Lat.  eo  magis,  more  by  that  (so  much  the  more)  (C,  54,  33) ; 
Jjy  heardra,  the  harder=harder  by  that  (80,  8) ;  §  302,  d. 

S15. ylcpylc,  spylc  (§  133,  3).  Ylc  couples  with  the  article  or  demon- 
strative ;  /jylc  and  spylc  may  be  used  as  adjectives  or  substantives ;  Jjxt  ylce 
leoht,the  same  light  (C,  301,  34) ;  such  (Luc,  ix,  9) ;  PjyUlc,  such  (Boet., 
39,  3  ;  Matt.,  xviii,  5) ;  spylc,  such  (Mc,  iv,  33  ;  Boet.,  38,  2). 

376.  Self(^  131),  with  personal  pronouns  {(}  366, 10),  with  substantives: 
pxre  sylfan  stope,  the  same  place  (John,  xi,  0) ;  se  cyning  sylfa,  the  king 
himself  (Ex.,  2,  1) ;  se  ppeoden  self,  the  Lord  himself  (C,  9,  10) ;  on  pxt 
dxgred  sylf,  at  the  dawn  exactly  (Jud.,  204). 

M 


178  SYNTAX.— INTEKKOGATIVES. 

Intekeogatives. 

377.  ITpa,  hp.Tt  (§  K35). 

Hpci  asks  mostly  for  persons  :  hpa  prut  hocstafds  xrest,  who  wrote  letters 
first?  (A.  R.,  40). 

IIpaH  asks  (1)  for  neuters,  (-2)  for  an  answer  without  regard  to  gender  or 
number,  (3)  for  a  special  character  or  part  of  an  object: 

(1)  Hpci't  nxddercynna  si  on  eordari,  what  of  snake  kind  are  on  the 
earth  1  (A.  R.,  41)  ;  (2)  hpiBt  syndon  ^e,what  (who)  are  youl  (B.,  237)  ; 
hpxt  is  se  cyning,  who  is  the  king  (of  glory)?  (Psa.,  xxiii,  10) :  com- 
pare pxt,  pis  (^  374,  2) ;  (3)  hpxt  godes  do  ic,  what  (of)  good  thing 
must  I  do?  (Matt.,  xix,  16)  ;  hpxt  nipes,  what  of  new?  (Ex.,  441,  22) ; 
hpxt  peorces,  \\'ha.t  kind  of  work?  {JE\f.)'^0\d  English  adjective  use: 
whatt  iveorrc  (Orm.,  1833). 
(a.)  Hpxt  is  se  pe  me  xthrdn,  what  is  he  who  touched  me  (=:emphatic 
who),  Lat.  quis  est  qui  (Luc,  viii,  45). 

(/>.)  Interjection,  opening  poems,  etc.,  Hpxt  I  pe  Gdr-Dend  (B.). 
(c.)  Hpxne  secgad  men  pxt  sy  marines  sunu,  whom  say  men  that  the  Son 
of  Man  may  be?    Hpxne  (Thorpe),  North,  huelcne  is  used  for  hpxt  of  other 
A.  Sax.  versions  in  imitation  of  the  Latin  Quern,  dicunt  homines  esse  Filium 
hominis  (Matt.,  xvi,  13),  making  anacoluthon,  ^  293. 

378.  Hpoeder  (which  of  two),  and  hpilc  (what  kind  of,  which  among 
like),  may  agree  as  adjectives,  or  govern  a  genitive :  hpxder  uhcer  ipegd, 
which  of  us  two  (B.,  2530 ;  Matt.,  xxi,  31  ;  A.  R.,  39) ;  hpylc  man  (A.  R., 
^0) ;  hpilc  mannd  (^Elfc). 

For  interrogatives  as  indefinites  and  relatives,  see  §^  382,  390. 

Relatives,  §  13  4. 

379.  Relative  clauses  in  the  Teutonic  tongues  are  oftencst  con- 
structed like  leading  clauses  with  a  demonstrative,  personal,  or 
interrogative  pronoun.  They  are  made  relative,  i.  e.,  subordinate 
adjective,  by  tone  alone,  or  by  a  relative  particle  7>e  added.  The 
Sanski'it  and  Greek  have  peculiar  forms  for  the  relative ;  the 
Latin  qui  is  from  the  interrogative  >2'wis. 

380 — A.  Demonstrative  Forms. 

1.  Se,  SCO,  pxt  alone  :  pa  feng  Nero  to  rice,  se  forlet  Britene,  then  came 
Nero  to  the  kingdom,  who  (that  one)  lost  Britain  (Chr.,47)  ;  se  purhpimad, 
se  byd  hdl,  who  endureth,  he  shall  be  saved  (Matt.,  x,  22) ; — antecedent 
omitted  :  pxt  ge  gehyrad,  hodiad,  that  ye  hear,  preach  (it)  (Matt.,  x,  27). 

2.  pxt  pxt,  whatever :  pxt  pxt  lator  but,  pxt  hxfd  angin,  whatever  later 
is,  that  has  beginning  (Hom.,  i,  284). 

3.  Se,  se6,pxt  with  indeclinable  sign  pc :  Augusthium, p07ie  pe  hi  gecorcn 
hxfdon,  Augustine,  whom  (the  one  that)  they  had  chosen  (Bed.,  1,  23) ;  pa 
ungeledfsuman,  pdrd  pe  hi  pd  gercorde  ne  cudan,  the  unbelievers,  of  whom 


RELATIVES.  I79 

they  the  speech  did  not  know  (Bed.,  1,  23) ;  pxt  pe^pxtte  may  refer  to  a 
sentence  (Bed.,  2,  7). 

4. /e  alone:  se  s t an, Jjc,  the  stone,  that  (the  builders  rejected)  (Mc,  xii, 
10) ;  pa  mddmds,  pe,  the  treasures,  that  (thou  gavest  me)  (B.,  1482) ; — an 
'antecedent  omitted  :  nii  synd  fontfarene  pe  suhton,  now  are  gone  (those)  who 
sought  (Matt.,  ii,  20). 

From  pe  a  preposition  is  usually  separated  :  pmt  bed,  pe  se  lama  on  hvg, 
the  bed  that  the  lame  one  on  lay  (Mc,  ii,  4). 

5.  Spylc — spylc :  he  sece  spylcne  hldford,  spylcne  he  pille,  he  may  seek 
such  a  lord,  as  he  may  choose  (^ds.,  v,  1, 1)  ;  spylce  burh,  spylce  sco  pxs, 
such  a  city,  as  it  was  (Oros.,  ii,  4,  5). 

6.  Spa :  spylcrd  yrmdd,  spa  pu  unc  ser  scnfe,  of  such  miseries,  as  thou 
to  us  before  assigned  (Ex.,  373,  2).  Compare  German  so,  Engl,  as,  and 
§  382, 2. 

381 — B.  Personal  Prouoiins. 

1.  Alone.  In  O.  H.  German,  clauses  with  the  personal  pronouns  arc 
made  relative  without  further  sign  :  Fatcr  unser  du  pist  in  hirniliim,  our 
Father,  who  (thou)  art  in  heaven  (Schade,  8  ;  Grimm,  iii,  17). 

2.  Personals  -witli  indeclinable  pe  or  se :  hpxt  ic  hdlte,  pe  to  land 
redfige,  what  am  I  called,  who  (i.  e.  I)  the  land  ravage?  (Rid.,  13,  14);  se 
/nee,  whom  (i.  e,  me)  (Ex.,  144,  9);  pe  pe,  (we)  who  (Cri.,  25);  Fxdcr 
ure,J)u  pe  earl  on  heofenum,  our  Father,  who  (thou)  art  in  heaven  (Matt., 
vi,  9);  pe  pa  (Hy.,  8,  13);  pe  he  (Psa.,  Ixvii,  4);  pe  his,  whpse  (Psa., 
xxxix,  4) ;  pe  him,  to  whom  (Psa.,  cxlv,  4)^se  him  (C,  201,  31)  ; — pe  sep- 
arated :  hpxt  se  god  pxre,  pe  pis  his  hedcen  pxs,  of  what  sort  the  god  was, 
that  this  was  his  sign=whose  sign  this  was  (El.,  162).  The  German  re- 
tains this  idiom,  du,  der  du  bist,  etc.  The  Gothic  uses  ilcei  (ik-\-ei),pu€i, 
izei. 

3.  Pergonals  ■with  ^e  pe :  se  bid  Icofust,  se  pe  him  God  syJcd,  he  is 
dearest,  (he)  to  whom  God  givctli  (Vid.,  132).     Compare  ^  384,  a. 

382 — C.  Interrogatives. 

1.  Hpxt; — indirect  interrogativc>relative  :  ne  rxdde  ge  pxt  hpxt  Dauid 
dyde,  have  ye  not  read  (that)  what  David  did  (Luc,  vi,  3) ;  nxfdon  hpxt 
hig  xton,  they  had  not  what  they  might  eat  (Mc,  viii,  1). 

Hpd  (who)  appears  as  a  proper  relative  first  in  its  dative  warn,  wan  in 
Layamon  (3,  632 ;  3,  50),  in  its  genitive  whas  and  dative  loham  in  Or- 
mulum  (3425,  10370).  The  nominative  who  is  found  sometimes  with 
a  pronominal  antecedent  in  WyclifTc,  A.D.  1382-3  (Isa.,  1,  10),  and  be- 
comes common  as  a  full  relative  in  Berners'  Froissart,  A.D.  1523. 

2.  Spa  hpd  spd,  spa  hpxt  spa,  spd  hpylc  {spa),  whosoever,  whatsoever, 
whichsoever :  Ixte  ic  hine,  spa  hpd  spd  cymcd,  I  will  let  him,  whosoever 
cometh  (sit  by  me)  (C,  28,  20) ;  spa  hpxt  spd  (Matt.,  xvi,  19) ;  spd  hpylc 
spd  (Matt.,  x,  42  ;  Bed.,  2,  2) ;  spa  hpylc  (Psa.,  cxxxvii,  4). 

Hpylc  (which)  appears  by  itself  as  a  relative  in  Layamon. 

383.  Attraction,     (a.)  The  relative  is  sometimes  attracted  to  the  case 


180  KELATIVES.— INDEFINITES. 

of  its  antecedent :  haligu  trcop,  sco  pu  Jicaldcst,  lioly  troth,  which  thou  bold- 
est (C,  2119).     But  see  ^  384,  a. 

(6.)  The  relative  is  sometimes  attracted  to  the  gender  of  a  noun  in  its  own 
clause  :  fulpiht-tUl,  pxne  (hi)  Tpelfla-dxg  hdtad,  baptism-time,  which  they 
Twelfth-day  call  (Men.,  13). 

(c.)  For  relative  adverbs,  see  ^^  396-398. 

384:,  Incorporation.  The  same  word  may  represent  both  antecedent 
and  relative.  It  may  have  the  case  (a.)  of  the  antecedent:  gcbyrgde  pxs 
gepeox,Xz&ie'\  of  what  grew  (C,  483);  such  cases  are  frequent,  yA'r5=/a;s 
fic.  Those  in  ^  383,  a,  may  be  similar,  seu^^seo  pe.,  seo  appositive  with 
treup.  Compare  ^  381,  3.  (/».)  Of  the  relative:  hi  nxfdon  hpxt  h'lg  xton, 
they  had  not  what  they  might  eat  (Mc,  8,  1).  Here  the  clause  hpxt  hlg 
seton  is  the  object  of  nxfdon.  (c.)  The  case  of /e  is  not  discriminated. 
For  examples,  see  ^  380,  4. 

385.  Omission.  Phrases  of  naming  often  lack  their  subject :  an  munac, 
Brihtnod  pxs  gehdlen,  a  monk  (who)  was  called  Brihtnoth  (Chr.,963),- 
s-caWe  dne  peopene,  Bala  hdtte,  gave  her  a  maid,  (who)  was  called  Bilhah 
=01d  Eng.  Bilhah  hight  (Gen.  xxix,  29).  M.  H.  German  used  the  same 
idiom.  Similar  phrases  sometimes  have  a  relative  expressed,  sometimes  a 
])ersonal  pronoun :  se  pxs  hdten  Penpald,  who  was  called  Penwald  (St.  G., 
1) ;  Agado  he  pxs  gehdten  (Chr.,675).  Compare  gef or  JElfrcd, pxs gerefa, 
Alfred  died  (who)  was  sheriff  (Chr.,  900).  But  the  Anglo-Saxon  does  not 
omit  the  relative  freely,  like  the  English. 

Indefinites,  §  13 C. 

886.  An: — indefinite  article:  an  man  hxfde  tpegen  suna,  a  man  had 
two  sons  (Matt.,xxi,  28) ;  dstdh  on  hme  spa  an  culfre,  (the  Spirit)  descended 
on  him,  like  a  dove  (Luc,  iii,  22) ;  seldom,  if  ever,  in  poetry ;  but  a  pretty 
indefinite  an  after  its  noun  occurs  ;  he  eordsele  dune  pisse,  he  knew  a  cav- 
ern (B.,  2410) ; — with  numeral  or  measure :  an  fifiig  sealmds,  a  fifty 
psalms  (.3]^ds.,  5,  3) ;  dne  healfe  tide,  a  half  time  (W.  P.  T.,  12);  an  gear 
an  man,  they  ruled  a  year  a  man=each  man  one  year  (Oros.,  2,  2,  3) ; 
dne  fedpa  pordd,  a  few  words  (Nic,  11),  dne  is  plural  and  means  onli/. 

(a.)  The  English  aM>a  has  several  shades  of  meaning.  A  nurse  said,  "a  s2Monful  an 
hour  is  a  dose  for  a  child  till  a  doctor  comes"=iA  certain  nurse  said,  "one  spoonful  each 
hour  is  lohat  is  called  dose  for  amj  child  till  some  doctor  comes."  The  first,  second,  and 
third  of  these  uses  are  sometimes  found  in  Anglo-Saxon,  as  in  Latin  (units).  Our  sec- 
ond example  is  nearly  the  fourth  use,  which  is  the  most  characteristic  use  of  the  proper 
article,  i.  e.,  simple  sign  of  a  singular  use  of  a  generic  term :  but  compare  it  is  a  dove 
with  it  is  like  a  dove.  Nan  means  tiot  any :  is  nun  caru,  is  there  not  any  care  ?  (Mc,  10, 
40).  The  Goth,  ains  translates  Gr.  eh;  sums,  tit.  O.  Norse  einns  is  sometimes  pro- 
clitic, so  Germ,  einer.    See  sum. 

(b.)  An  (indefinite  pronoun)  is  adjective  or  substantive.  Peculiar  uses : 
(1)  his  dnes  crxft,  his  own  power  (C,  272)  ; — (2)  puhte  pe  dnum,  it  seemed  to 
thy  5e//'(Sat.,  55)  ; — (3)  dn  xfter  dnum  (Sal.,  385)=:anne  and  dnne  (Oros., 
2,  3)=art  xfter  eallum  (B.,  2268)=a?i  xfter  odrum  (Sat.,  26)=a«e5  and 


NUMEEALS.  181 

odres  (Met.,  25,  52),  one  after  another; — (4)  hxdan  pdm  dnum,  except  the 
ones  (Sat.,  147) ;  for  unc  dnum  tpdm,  for  us  two  alone  (Rid.,  61,  15) ; — 
(5)  an  sunu,  only  son  (Rid.,  81,  10)  ; — (6)  pcXt  pxs  an  cyning,  that  was  a 
(true)  king  (B.,  1885); — (7)  dnrd  with  indefinite  pronouns:  dura  gehpylc, 
each  one  «of  ones)  (Matt.,  xxvi,  22)  ;  so  xghpylc  (Gii.,  4)  ;  hpd,  gehpd, 
etc.,  compare  gehpylc  pegnd,  each  of  thanes=each  thane  (B.,  1673) ; — (8) 
dues  hpxt,  somewhat,  in  any  degree  (Boet.,  18,  3) ; — (9)  on  dn,  in  one,  to- 
gether, once  for  all  (Psa.,  cxxxii,  1 ;  Ixxxii,  9  ;  lii,  4). 

387.  Nan,  sanig,  nxnig  have  both  substantive  and  adjective  syntax. 

388.  Sum;  (1)  indefinite  article=f2« ;  sum  man  lixfde  tpegen  sund,  a 
man  had  two  sons  (Luc,  xv,  11),  see  ^  386  ; — (2)  pronoun  :  dnum  he  sealde 
fif  pund,  sumum  tpd.,  to  one  he  gave  five  pounds,  to  another  two  (Matt., 
xxv,  15) ; — (3)  code  eahta  sum,  he  vi^ent  one  of  eight  (B.,  3123) ; — (4)  sum 
feol,  some  (seed)  fell  by  the  way  (Mc,  4,  4);-^(5)  sume  pa  bocerds,  some 
(of)  the  scribes  (Matt.,  ix,  3) ;  sume  ge,  some  of  you  (John,  vi,  64),  see  ^ 
287,  c ; — (6)  sume  ten  gedr,  some  ten  years  (Boet.,  38,  1),  see  §  148. 

389.  Man,  piht,  dpiht,  ndpiht :  gif  mon  p'lf  ofsled,  if  one  a  woman 
slay  (^Elf.  B.,  9) ;  hide  mon  hider,  some  one  led  hither  (Bed.,  2,  2) ;  Iddcs 
piht,  anything  of  pain  (painful)  (Ex.,  144,  1);  opiht  elles,  anything  else, 
something  (Bed.,  3,  22);  nopiht  yfeles,  nothing  evil  (Bed.,  2,  12);  so  ndn 
ping  grenes,  nothing  green  (Exod.,  x,  15). 

390.  Hpd  and  compounds  :  Iipd^^^man,  any  one  (Matt.,  xxi,  3  ;  Mrc,  12, 
19)  ;  spylces  hpxt,  some  what  (B.,  880),  summ  whatt  appears  in  Orm,  958 ; 
gchpd,  each  (jMc,  15,  24);  wghpd,  each  (Rid.,  66,  2);  hpxt-hugu,  some 
what  (Bed.,  1,  27). 

391.  Gehpoedcr,  each  of  two,  dhpxder,  any,  are  substantive,  sbghpxder, 
either  of  two  (Bed.,  2,  3;  1,7),  of  many  (B.,  1636),  subst.  and  adj. 

392.  Compounds  of  -lie  arc  used  substantively  and  adjectively :  xlc, 
each,  every  (Matt.,  vii,  17 ;  xx,  2),  xucr  xlc^everyche~y every  appears  in 
Layamon,  2814 ;  xlc  with  bder,  are  both  inflected  :  hi  cpxdon  xlc  to  odrum, 
they  said,  each  to  the  others  (Mc,  4,  41) ;  xlc  odres  fet,  each  wash  the 
other's  feet  (John,  xiii,  14) ;  spilce  pri,  some  three  (Luc,  1, 56). 

NuMEKALS,  §§  13  8-14  8. 

393.  Cardinals:  oftenest  substantive  with  gen.:  feopertig  dagd,  forty 
(of)  days  (C,  1351);  with  of:  dn  of  pisicm,  one  of  these  (Matt.,v,  19); 
— apposition:  an  fftig  sealmds,  a  fifty  psalms  (^(ts.,  5,  3); — with 
pronoun  :  hi  pry,  they  three  (Ex.,  190, 11)  ; — alone  :  pdforman  tpd,  the 
first  two  (=pair),  Adam  and  Eve  (C,  194)  ; — adjective  :  mid  L  scipum, 
with  fifty  ships  (Chr.,  1052) ;  tyn  pusend,  ten  thousand  (Matt.,  xviii, 
24).  Compounds  with  and :  six  and  fftig,  56  (Bed.,  2,  5) ; — with  Ixs, 
pana,  hutan:  tpd  Ixs  XXX,  28  (Chr.,  641);  dncs  pana  pr'ittigum, 
thirty  less  one  (Bed.,  1, 1) ;  tpentig  hutan  dn,  19  (Bed.,  5,  19) ;  numerals 
with  sum,  see  ^  388,  and  compare  French  quelque,  Gr.  tiq. 


182  NUMERALS.— ADVERBS. 

For  ordinal  dates:  sixtigum  j>intra,(jO  years  (=GOth  year)  B.C.  (Bed., 
1,2) ; — multiplicative  :  six  spa  miccl,  six  times  as  much  (LL.,  p.  398) ; 
— distributive:  ipdm, by  twos  (Lc,  10,  1) ;  dnne  and  dnnc,  one  by  one 
(Oros.,  2,  3,  4) ; — iiow  often:  sixtyne  s'utum,  16  times  (An.,  490); — 
division  :  on  tpd,  in  two  (Ap.  11). 

894.  Ordinals.  Adjective,  with  or  without  an  article  :  se  cahtoda  dxg, 
the  eighth  day  (St.  G.,  3) ;  priddan  dwge,  the  third  day  (Lc.,  9,  22) ; — 
with  o/(rare) :  oder  of  his  leorning-cnihtum,  a  second  of  his  disciples 
(Matt.,  viii,  21),  an  operr  appears  in  Orm.,  5778  ; — compounds  :  (1)  or- 
dinal-\-ordinal :  p!)  tpentigdan  and  pfj  feordan,  the  24th  (day  of  Sep- 
tember) (Bed.,  4,  5);  (2)  cardinal+ordinal :  an  and  (pentigodan,  2lst 
(Exod.,  xii,  18)  ;  (3)  ordinal+cardinal ;  sixla  e dc  feopertigmn,  i6t\i 
(Bed.,  1,  15). 

Division:  seofedan  dxl,  seventh  part  (Oros.,  2,  4,  6);  before  healf  (^ 
147)  :  nigonteude  healf  gear,  18}  years  (Chr.,  855) ;  feorde  healf  hund 
scipe,  350  ships  (Chr.,  851). 

395.  Indefinites  (1.)  eal :  eal  here,  the  whole  mob  (C,  150, 12) ;  perod 
eal,  the  host  all  (C,  184,  1)  ;  eal  seo  »,  all  the  law  (Matt.,  xxii,  40) ; 
uninflected  (B.,  2042,  and  often  when  parted  from  its  noun) ; — with 
pronouns  :  pe  ealle,  we  all  (C,  268,  27) ;  ealles  pxs,  all  that  (186,  25)  ; 
hig  ealle,  they  all  (Matt.,  xiv,  20)  ; — substantive  :  eallum  gumend 
cynnes,  all  of  mankind  (B.,  1057) ;  geornast  ealles,  eagerest  of  all  (Psa., 
83, 12) ;  hpxt  ealles,  what  on  the  whole  (cxix,  3) ;  ealrd  ricost,  richest 
of  all  (Vid.  15,  ^  312,  c)  ;  tpelfd  ea/ra,  twelve  in  all  (B.,3171). 
-  (2.}  Manig  ; — adjective  :  manige  men,  many  men  (B.,  337) ;  rinc  manig, 
many  (a)  mviTi,  Germ,  tnancher  tnann,  Ij'a.i.  multus  vir  (An.,  1118); 
many  cnne  king,  many  a  king,  appears  in  Layamon  (6591).  Note  the 
noun  mxmgeo,  a  crowd  (Matt.,  viii,  18;  iv,  25) ;  and  often  (>Shake- 
speare's  the  rank-scented  many,  a  great  many ; — substantive  :  moniges 
pintrd,  many  (of)  winters  (C,  1230). 

(3.)  Micel,  much  ;  md,  mdrd,  more. 

(4.)  Feapa,  few;  fed{p)um  dnum,iew  only,  a  few  (B.,  1081) ;  fcd{pe)rd 
sumne,  one  of  few=with  few  companions  (B.,  3061). 

(5.)  Lyt :  lyt  freondd,^e-w  (of)  friends  (C,  2626);  cynnes  lyt-hpon,ic\\ 
of  the  race  (Jud.,311).     For  hpon,  see  Grein. 


ADVERBS. 
895*.  Adverbs  modify  verbs,  adjectives,  and  other  adverbs. 
Adverbs  could  for  the  most  part  be  parsed  as  cases  of  nouns,  as  they  were, 
^251.     They  make 
Adverbial  combinations :  he  peup  biterlke,  he  wept  bitterly  (Matt., 
xxvi,  75) ;  spa  geongum,  so  young  (B.,  1843)  ;  spa  miceles  gepdh,  he 
throve  so  greatly  (C,  186,  24). 


INTERROGATIVE.— DEMONSTRATIVE.  183 

Predicative,  mostly  adverbs  of  place  :  hpxr  is  se  luded  cyning,  where 
is  the  Jews'  king]  (Matt.,  ii,  2) ;  pe  her  bedn,we  are  here  (Mc,  9,  5)  ; 
Jjxr  ic  eom,  there  I  am  (Matt.,  xviii,  20)  ; — expletives,  so  called,  y^i-;- 
peard  geporden  mycel  eordbifung,  there  was  a  great  earthquake 
(Matt.,  xxviii,  2). 

Attributive,  rare :  mm  lu  maglster,  my  of-yore  master  (Bed.,  5,  10). 

396.  Interrogative  and  demonstrative  adverbs  may  be  used  like 
their  pronouns,  §§  252,  260. 

A.  To  govern  a  case  :  hp&r  eordan  Abel  p&re,  where  (:=in  what  part) 
of  the  earth  Abel  was  (C,  1003) ;  hpider  (Jul.,  700) : — governed  :  sell  pxr 
Im  on  sitest,  seat  where  on  thou  sittest  (Hy.,  7,  41),  so  other  prep,  often. 

B.  To  introduce  clauses. 

3  9  7. — I.  Leading  Clauses. 
Declarative :  pxr  may  introduce  a  clause  like  an  indefinite  hit  {^  365, 
5)  :  piJer  peard  geporden  mycel  eordbifung,  there  was  a  great  earthquake, 
Germ,  es  geschah  em  gross  erdbeben,  Gr.  aEiafibg  iysviro,  Lat.  terrcB  motus 
f actus  est  (Matt.,  xxviii,  2) ;  hence  English  so-called  expletive  there. 

Interrogative. — Interrogation  may  relate  to  the  general  affirmation  of 
a  sentence,  or  to  some  particular  point  connected  with  it,  the  subject,  ob- 
ject, time,  place,  mayiner. 

(I.)  General  questions  are   expressed  by  inversion    or  tone:  hwfst  pu 
hafoc,  hast  thou  a  hawk"?  (^Ifc.)  ; — by  hpxdcr  with  the  subjunctive: 
hpxder  ge  nH  pillen  psedan,  will  ye  now  hunt?  (Met.,  19,  15). 
(2.)  Particular  questions  are  expressed  by  interrogative    pronouns   or 
adverbs:  hp&r  is  heora   Gorf,  where  is  their  God?  (Psa.,  cxiii,  10) ; 
hpider,  \\'\\\i\\ex'\  (C,  2269);    /?/^ano?2,  whence  ?  (B.,  333).     For  pro- 
nouns, see  ^  377-8. 
(a.)  Negative  questions  add  ne :  ne  drincst  pu  phi,  dost  thou  not  drink 
wine?  (^Ifc). 

[b.)  Tlic  particles  ac,  ah,  hit,  Id,  are  used  to  strengthen  ques- 
tions. 

Ac  for  hpam,  wherefore  then?  (Sal.,  312)  ;  ah  ne  pe  fordrifon,  did  we 
not  cast  out  (devils)  ?  Matt.,  vii,  22 ;  North.)  ;  hit  ne  synd  ge  selran, 
are  not  ye  better?  (Matt.,  vi,  20) ;  hpxt  is  pis  Id  manna,  who  is  this 
(J,d)  man?  (El.,  903) ;  so  are  used  forms  of  secgan  and  cpedan,  say  : 
segst  pQ-  msrg  se  blinda  pone  blindan  hvdan,  (sayst  thou)  can  the  blind 
lead  the  blind?  (Luc,  vi,  39)  ;  cpede  ge  hwbbe  ge  sufol,  (say  ye)  have 
ye  any  meat?  (John,  xxi,  5)  ;  cpede  pe  ys  pes  Dauidcs  sunn,  (say  we) 
is  this  David's  son?  (Matt.,  xii,  24). 
(3.)  Disjunctive  questions  may  have  inverted  clauses,  or  the  sign 
hp:vdcr :  ys  hit  riht  pxt  man  pam  Casere  gafol  syllc,  pe  nd,  is  it  right 
to  give  tribute  to  Caesar,  or  no?  (Luc.  xx,  21) ;  hpxdcr  first:  hpxdcr 
is  mdre,pe  pxt  gold,pe  tempi,  which  is  greater,  the  gold  or  the  temple  ? 


184  ADVERBS.— rAKTICLES. 

(Matt.,  xxiii,  17) ; — before  second  clause  :  jhvs  lohanncs  fulluht  of 
heofone,  hpxdcr  Pc  of  mannum,  was  John's  baptism  of  heaven,  or  of 
men?  (Luc,  xx,  4). 

3  9  8. — II.    SUBOKDINATE    CLAUSES. 

1.  Indirect  questions :  fnrgn,  hpier  Abel  pxre,  asked  where  Abel  was 
(C,  1003).     See  further,  ^^  424,  425. 

2.  Relative  clauses :  hus,  panon  tc  ut  code,  house  whence  (=:from 
which)  I  went  out  (Matt.,  xii,  44)  ;  /la  dagds,  ponne  se  bnjdguma  byd 
dfyrred,  the  days  when  the  bridegroom  shall  be  taken  away  (Lc,  5,  35) ; 
on  stimihtc,  pxr  hyt  nxfde  mycle  eordan,  on  stony  ground,  where  it  had  not 
much  earth  (Matt.,  xiii,  5). 

(a.)  The  relative  adverb  is  often  made  a  conjunction  by  incorporation 
(^  384) :  ne  mage  ge  cuman  pider  ic  fare,  ye  may  not  come  whither  I  go 
(John,  viii,  21). 

Particles  of  Affikmation  and  Negation,  §  261. 

399.  Answers.    The  particles  gea,  gese,  ne,  nese,  na,  in 

answer   to   gcnei-al   questions,  have   the    syntax   of  declarative 
clauses.     (Other  tongues  have  particles  of  like  syntax.) 

(a.)  They  are  quasi-clauses,  §  278,  c?.-  lufdst  pu  me?  ged,  lovest  thou  me, 
Yea  (=1  love  thee)  (John,  xxi,  16) ;  gise,  Id  gese,  yes,  O  yes  (Boet.,  16, 
4)  ; — object  of  a  verb  :  ne,  secge  ic  eop,  I  say  to  you,  no  (Luc,  xii,  51)  ;  nd 
(xiii,  3) ;  nese  (i,  60)  ;  cpyst  pu,  eart  pu  of  pyses  leorning-cnihtum  ?  nic,  ne 
com  ic,  art  thou  of  his  disciples'?     Not  I,  I  am  not  (John,  xviii,  17). 

400.  Negative  Adverbs.  Repeated  negatives  strengthen 
the  negation.     (So  in  old  Teutonic  and  Greek,  not  in  Latin.) 

1.  General  negation  is  expressed  by  ne.  It  may  be  repeated  before  the 
verb,  subject,  object,  adverb :  ne  on  mode  ne  mum,  do  not  mourn  in  mind 
(An.,  99) ;  nan  spile  ne  cpom,  none  such  comes  (Cri.,  290) ;  ne  nan  ne 
dorste  nan  ping  dcsian,  no  one  durst  ask  him  anything  (Matt.,  xxii,  46) ;  ne 
pep  pu  nu,  weep  not  at  all  (Lc,  7,  13). 

(a.)  A  positive  word  of  emphasis  may  be  added  :  ic  ne  forhtige  piht, 
I  shall  not  fear  a  whit  (Psa.,  Ixi,  2) ;  often  napiht  (Matt.,  xxvii,  24) ;  so 
French  point,  pas. 

2.  Particular  negation  is  expressed  by  un-,  -leas,  nd,  nalxs,  noht:  nalxs 
ridende  on  horse,  ac  on  his  fotum  gangende,  not  riding  on  horseback,  but 
going  on  his  feet  (Bed.,  3,  28)  ;  nalws  micelre  tide,  no  long  time  (4,  6) ;  heo 
tiliad  to  cpemanne  Gode  mid  pordum,  nses  mid  peorcum,  they  try  to  please 
God  with  words,  not  with  works  (Psa.,xlviii,  12) ;  noht  fe or,  not  far  (4,  3). 


SYNTAX.— VERB.  185 


USES   OF   THE  VERB-FORMS. 

Peesonal  Endings. 

Agreetnent. 

401.  A  finite  verb  agrees  with  its  subject  io  number  and 
l^erson. 

(a.)  Participles  in  compound  tenses  agree  ; — passives  :  pes  pu  gehletsud, 
he  thou  blest  (An.,  540) ;  pesait  ge  gebletsdde,he  ye  blest  (Psa.,  cxiii,  23)  ; 
— perfect :  her  syndon  geferede,  here  have  come  (B.,  361).  After  hahban, 
transitive  participles  agree  with  the  object,  intransitives  have  no  ending : 
he  hxfd  mon  geporhtne,  he  has  man  made  (C,  25, 18) ;  Me  gcgdn  hwfdon, 
they  had  gone  (Jud.,  140).  But  the  endings  early  fell  away.  See  further 
examples,  ^^  412-419. 

402.  Simple  Subject. — 1.  Its  forms.  1.  A  substantive.  2.  An  adjec- 
tive used  as  a  substantive.  3.  A  pronoun.  4.  A  numeral.  5.  An  infin- 
itive. 6.  Any  word  or  phrase  as  such.  7.  A  clause,  or  clauses.  So  in  all 
tongues.  Impersonals  generally  have  their  subject  hit.  For  examples, 
see  §  366,  5.  See  pcpr,  ^  397.  Indefinite  personals  (man,  etc).,  see  ^^ 
389,  390. 

2.  Collectives  singular  may  take  a  plural  verb  by  synesis :  se  here 
gebrohton,  the  army  brought  (their  ships)  (Chr.,  1016) ; — a  singular  and 
plural :  pxt  folc  sxt  *  *,  and  arison,  the  people  sat,  and  they  arose  (Exod., 
xxxii,  6)  ;  se  here  spur  pxt  hie  poldon,  the  army  swore  that  they  would 
(Chr.,  921)  ;  pm  ofspring  sceal  cigan  heard  feondd  gata,  ihy  offspring  shall 
possess  the  gates  of  their  foes  (Gen.,  xxii,  17). 

3.  Numerals  plural  may  take  a  singular  verb,  generally  before  them  : 
pa  pses  dgdn  V pintrd,  then  was  gone  5000  years  (Chr.,  616,  655).  Com- 
pare him  gelicdde  hire  pedpds,  him  pleased  her  manners  (?)  (Chr.,  1067). 

403.  Compound  subject,  ^  282. 

Copulate  singulars  take  a  plural  (1)  after  them  regularly:  Maria  and 
Martha  pAron  tpd  gespyslru,  IMary  and  Martha  were  two  sisters  (Hom.,  1, 
130); — before  them  sometimes:  pa  cp&don  Annanias,  Azarias,  Misahel, 
then  said  Hananiah,  Azariah,  Mishael  (Hom.,  2,  18)  ; — oftener :  /a  peard 
he  gedrefed,  and  eal  Hicrosolim-parii,  then  was  he  troubled,  and  all  Jeru- 
salem folks  (Matt,  iii,  2). 

(a.)  Copulate  words  may  be  really  a  simple  subject,  1,  a  repetition  of 
the  same  notion,  often  a  climax  :  ?nm  sdpl  and  mm  mind  is  spydc  gedrefed, 
my  soul  and  my  mind  is  greatly  troubled  (Psa.,  vi,  2  ;  Milton,  P.  L.,  1, 139) ; 
— 2,  complements  of  one  notion  :  fluisc  and  Mod  ne  xtedpde  pe,  flesh  and 
blood  hath  not  showed  to  thee  (Matt.,  xvi,  17,  North. ;  so  Lat..  Greek,  etc.) ; 
tor  and  burh  stod,  tower  and  burg  stood  (C,  102, 17  ;  Milton,  P.  L.,  2, 495  ; 
6,  814,  etc.). 

(p.)  Logical  copulates  connected  by  a  preposition  may  take  a  plural  by 


ISG  VERB.— AGREEMENT.— KINDS. 

i  yncsis  :   se  fcond  mid  his  gcfcrum  fcollon.  the  fiend   with   (^and)  his 
mates  fell  (C,  30G).     So  in  Latin,  Greek,  and  elsewhere. 

404.  Agreement  ■with  a  predicate  may  take  place 

1.  When  tiie  subject  is  pis  or  pivL :  pis  synt  pa  bebodu,  these  are  the 
statutes  (Lev.,  xxvi,  46) ;  pxt  pxron  pa.  ibrestan  scipu,  those  were  the  first 
ships  (Chr.,  787). 

2.  When  the  subject  is  remote  :  gyf  pxt  Icoht  pe  on  pe  ys,  synt  pyslru, 
if  the  light  that  is  in  thee  is  darkness,  Lat.  icnebra  sunt  (Matt.,  vi,  23),  and 
in  other  cases  when  the  predicate  is  the  more  important  to  the  thought. 

405.  Omission  of  the  subject  occurs  (1)  with  imperatives,  (2)  where 
it  would  be  repeated,  (3)  with  reflexives,  (4)  in  other  rare  cases,  mostly  of 
the  first  and  second  persons  (for  examples,  see  ^  366) ; — of  the  verb : 
(1)  the  verb  to  be  in  exclamatory  clauses :  pa  eop,  woe  (be)  to  you  (Matt., 
xxiii,  13,  Cambridge) ;  pel  gcsund,  Apolloni,  (may  you  be)  very  well,  Apol- 
lonius  (Ap.,  7) ; — elsewhere  (rare)  :  pxr  koht  and  lif,  in  heaven,  where  (is) 
light  and  life  (C,  212,  26)  ;  (2)  to  give  in  certain  phrases:  edge  for  cage, 
and  tod  for  tod,  an  eye  (must  be  given)  for  an  eye,  and  a  tooth  for  a  tooth 
(Matt.,  V,  38).  For  hpxt,  what,  ^  377,  b.  For  omission  of  the  infinitive 
with  auxiliaries,  ^■^  435-443.    Answers,  ^  399. 

40 G.  The   Kinds   oi^  Vekbs. 
Notional,  §  55. 

Intransitive,  i^  275,  a. 
Transitive,  ^^  275,  a ;  290,  b. 
Copulative,  ^^  273,  b ;  286,  c. 

Impersonal,  ^^  290,  c  ,•  299,  a ;  366,  5. 

Reflexive,  ^^  150,  a;  2d0,  d ;  298,  c. 

Factitive,  ^i^  275,  a ;  294,  a. 

Causative,  ^  292,  c. 

Relational,  §§  150-152;  176;  212;  435-443. 

(a.)  The  emphatic  form  in  do  (^  177,  2) :  spa  dod  nu  pa  peostro  pidstan- 
dan,  (as  a  great  rock  withstands),  so  does  now  the  darkness  withstand 
(Boet.,  6).  This  perhaps  never  occurs  in  Anglo-Saxon  except  as  a  repeti- 
tion of  a  verb  just  used.  See  a  possible  example  (Psa.,  cxviii,  25)  Grein. 
But  do-\-an  object  clause  occurs  as  an  emphatic  form  :  ne  do  pu  afre,  pxt 
pu  oncyrre=^ne  avertas,  do  not  (thou  ever,  that  thou)  turn  away  (Psa., 
cxxxi.  Id) ;  so  cxviii,  97,  174,  170,  etc. 

(h.)  The  same  verb  may  be  in  the  same  author  notional  in  one  connection,  relational  in 
another ;  so  also  transitive  and  intransitive,  reflexive  and  not,  causative  and  not,  and  the 
like. 

(c.)  Historically  verbs  change  from  one  kind  to  another;  especially  from  notional  to 
relational,  from  intransitive  to  transitive  (causal),  from  transitive  to  intransitive.  They 
acquire  factitive,  reflexive,  or  passive  senses,  or  drop  them.  Such  changes  may  be  noted 
in  comparing  Anglo-Saxon  verbs  with  their  English  descendants.  See  impersonal  and 
reflexive  examples  at  the  55  referred  to  above. 


VOICES.— TENSES. 


187 


Voices,  §  15  0. 

407.  A  transitive  verb  may  take  two  forms  as  the  agent  or  the  object  is 
made  more  prominent. 

408.  Active.  The  active  voice  is  used  to  make  the  agent 
tlie  subject  of  predication. 

(a.)  It  is  the  common  form  of  all  verbs. 

409.  Passive.  The  passive  voice  is  used  to  make  the  direct 
object  of  the  action  the  subject  of  predication. 

For  its  forms,  see  ^§  178-182,  and  tenses,  ^^  412-416. 

(a.)  The  agent  is  expressed  with  passive  verbs  by  an  oblique  case  after 
fram,  purh,  or  the  like  :  fram  Siluestre  l&rde  pxron,  they  were  taught  by 
Silvester  (El.,  190). 

(b.)  A  factitive  object  becomes  a  predicate  nominative :  Ci-ist  pxs 
Hielend  gehdten,  Christ  was  called  HMend  (Saviour)  (Men.,  4) ;  but  if 
expressed  with  a  preposition,  it  is  unchanged :  pxs  to  pdpan  geset,  w^as 
made  (to  a)  pope  (Chr.,  1058). 

(c.)  Other  objects  are  unchanged  with  passives :  (dative)  pxs  xrende 
xdelum  cempum  dboden,  the  message  was  given  to  the  noble  knights  (An., 
230); — impersonals :  ?5  me  gepuht^me  Pyncd,  it  seems  to  me  (Ex.,  163, 
6)  ; — genitive  :  beunids  pxron  ofxtes  gehlxdene,  trees  were  laden  with  fruit 
(C,  30,  4)  ; — instrumental :  Johannes  pxs  heafde  becorfen,  John  was  cut 
off  from  his  head  (Bed.,  1,  27). 

410.  Middle.     For  middle  forms,  see  ^^  150,  a  ;  290,  d;  298,  c. 


Tense,  §  15  2. 

411.  la  relation  to  time  action  is  represented  by  A. -Sax.  verbs 
as  in  its  own  nature  indefinite,  continued,  or  completed ;  and  in 
regard  to  the  time  of  speaking  ix%  present,  past,  or  future. 

Present ■ 

Future 

Past 

For  subordinate  clauses,  see  §  418. 

412.  The  endings  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  verb  discriminate  only 
past  time  from  other  lime. 

1.  The  so-called  present  tense  is  used  {or  present  zn^  future  acts. 

2.  The  so-called  imperfect  is  used  for  all  past  acts. 


Indcflnitc. 

Continued. 

Completed. 

(  ic  ninie. 

ic  earn  nimende, 

ic  hxbbe  numen, 

\  I  take. 

I  am  taking. 

I  have  taken. 

C  ic  Tiimc^ 

ic  bed  nimende, 
I  shall  be  taking. 

<  ic  sceal  (pille)  niman, 

I  shall  have  take 

i  I  shall  (will)  take. 

(  ic  nam. 

ic  pxs  nimende. 

ic  hxfde  numen. 

i  I  took. 

I  was  taking. 

I  had  taken. 

188  INDICATIVE  TENSES. 

3.  Compound  forms  in  whicli  the  auxiliary  has  the  present  form  discrim- 
inate varieties  oi  present  and  future  action. 

4.  Compound  forms  in  which  the  auxiliary  has  the  imperfect  form  dis- 
criminate varieties  of  past  action. 

(a.)  The  present,  future,  and  perfect  are  called  principal  tenses;  the 
imperfect  and  pluperfect,  historical  tenses. 

Indicative  Tenses. 

413.  The  Present  expresses 

(1.)  W/iat  exists  or  is  taking  place  now  :  /tone  mactdum  byred,  he  bears 
the  treasure  (B.,  2055) ; — progressive  :  peus  corde  is  berende,  the  land 
is  bearing  (^produces)  (diverse  birds)  (Bed.,  1,  1) ; — passive:  ic  eom 
gelufod,  I  am  loved  (JE\{.  Gr.,  26) ;  corde  is  gecpeden  Godes  fot- 
sceamel,  earth  is  called  God's  foot-stool  (Horn.,  2,  448) ;  pyrd  beredfdd 
(Met.,  28,42) ;  beod  fangene  (Bed.,  1, 1). 

(2.)  Customs  and  truths  :  pxr  pin  goldheord  ts,  p&r  ts  pin  heorte,  where 
thy  treasure  is,  there  is  thy  heart  (Matt.,  vi,  21). 

(3.)  Author's  language  :  se  pitega  us  manad,  the  prophet  exhorts  us 
(Horn.,  2,  124,  rare). 

(4.)  Future  :  after  prim  dagon  ic  arise,  after  three  days  I  shall  arise 
(Matt.,  xxvii,  63) ;  ne  gskst  pu  panone,  mr  pu  agilde,  thou  shalt  not  go 
thence,  till  thou  shalt  have  paid  (Matt.,  v,  26). 

(5.)  Imperative  :  six  dagas  pu pircst,  ^  420,  c. 

(6.)  Narrative  clause  dependent  on  a  past  tense :  hpi  noldest  pu  secgan 
pcBt  heo  pin  pif  is,  why  didst  thou  not  say  that  she  is  thy  wife?  (Gen., 
xii,  18,  frequent).     ^  419,  III. 

414.  The  Imperfect  (preterit)  expresses 

(1.)  What  took  place  or  was  occurring  in  time  fully  past:  he  sxgde, 
he  said  (they  were  magicians)  (Jul.,  301) ;  —  progressive:  spa,  ic  sbr 
secgende  pxs,  as  I  was  saying  before  (An.,  951); — passive:  ic  psss 
gelufod,  I  was  loved  (^If.  Gr.,  2G) ;  pd  pass  pridpord  sprecen,  then  a 
mighty  word  was  spoken  (B.,  642) ;  pur  don  heofends  ontynede,  the 
heavens  were  opened  (Matt.,  iii,  16). 

(2.)  Perfect :  nu  pu  iMst  pinne  peop,  forpam  mine  edgan  gesdpon  pine 
hsclc,  now  lettest  thou  thy  servant  depart,  for  mine  eyes  have  seen  thy 
salvation  (Luc,  2,  30). 

(3.)  Pluperfect :  pd  hi  pjxt  gebod  gehyrdon,  pid  ferdon  h'ig,\\\\en  they  had 
heard  the  command,  they  went  (Matt.,  ii,  9). 

415.  The  Future  is  expressed  (1.)  by  the  present,  h  413  (future  perfect, 
§  413,  4)  ; — progressive  :  beod  feohtende,  will  be  fighting  (Jos.,  x,  25)  ; 
— passive:  ic  beo  gelufod,  I  shall  be  loved  (JElf.  Gr.,  26)  ;  selc  treop 
byd  forcorfen,  each  tree  shall  be  hewn  down  (Matt,  iii,  10  ;  Luc,  6,  38)  ; 
pyrd  him  pite  gegearpod,  punishment  shall  be  prepared  for  them  (C, 
28,  6). 


INDICATIVE  TENSES.  189 

(2.)  By  seed :  ic  pe  sceal  mine  gel&stan  freode,  I  shall  keep  my  regard 
for  thee  (B.,  1706) ;  J)u  scealt  peordan,  thou  shalt  be  (=wilt  be)  a 
comfort  to  the  people  (B.,  1707) ;  sceal  gar  pesan  hxfen  on  handa, 
spear  shall  be  raised  in  hand  (B.,  3021) ;  he  sceal  pesan  Ismahel  hdten, 
he  shall  be  called  Ishmael  (C.,2286);  sceal  pesan  pruiende  (C,  1762). 

(3.)  By  pille:  pene  ic  pxt  he  gyldan  pille,l  think  that  he  will  pay  (B., 
1184);  pu  pilt  secgan,  ihovi  wilt  say  (Met.,  24,  48);  Northumb.  has 
often  uuillo  in  the  first  person  (Matt.,  xii,  44 ;  x,  33). 

(4.)  By  gd :  he  gxd  rsedan,  Lat.  pergit  lectum,  he  is  going  to  read  {JEAL 
Gr.,25),  Fr.  Je  vais  lire.     See  ^  445,  6,  and  uton,  ^  443. 

(5.)  By  hcPhhe :  pone  calic  pe  ic  to  drincenne  hxhhe,  North,  done  ic  drinca 
uuillo,  the  cup  that  I  have  to  (=:  shall)  drink  of,  Lat.  hibiturus  sum 
(Matt.,  XX,  22) ;  rare.     See  ^  453,  a.     So  in  Goth.,  Romanic. 

(6.)  By  eom:  Mannes  Sunu  is  to  syZ/enne,  North,  sunu  monnes  gesald 
bid,  the  Son  of  Man  is  to  (^  shall)  be  betrayed,  Lat.  tradendus  est 
(Matt.,  xvii,  22).  See  ^451.  The  three  last  forms  perhaps  give  no 
pure  futures  in  the  Anglo-Saxon  literature. 

(7.)  The  future  perfect  is  not  discriminated.  In  its  place  may  be  a  fu- 
ture :  &r  pit  dgilde,  thou  shalt  not  go  thence,  before  (=til])  thou  shalt 
have  paid  (Matt.,  v,  26)  ;  a  perfect:  pit  eft  cumad  siddan  pit  dgifen 
hahbad,  we  will  come  again,  after  we  (shall)  have  completed  (C,  174, 
25). 

(a.)  The  future  forms  are  sometimes  imperative,  ^  420,  c. 

(J).)  Pure  futures  in  sceal  and  pille  are  not  sure  in  large  numbers,  and  the 
English  distinction  between  the  persons  is  not  made  out. 

416.  The  Perfect  represents  an  action  as  now  come  to  completion.  It 
is  denoted 

(1.)  By  hsebbe:  he  hxfd  mon  gcporhtnc,  he  has  made  man  (C,  25,  18) ; 
pe  habbad  lydre  gefcred,  we  have  got  along  badly  (Sat.,  62). 

(2.)  By  eom, with  a  few  intransitives  mostly  of  being  and  going:  ic  com 
hider  gefered,  I  am  (have)  hither  journeyed  (C,  498) ;  so  synd  ford- 
farene,  have  departed  (died)  (Matt.,  ii,  20) ;  ctgdn,  gone  (El.,  1227) ; 
geporden,  geseten,  urnen. 

Passive.-  eom-}- pp.  of  transitives :  eallc  ping  me  synd  gesealdc,  all 
things  have  been  given  me  (Matt.,  xi,  27) ; — eom  geporden-^-p.  p.  :  nu 
syndon  hi  gepordcne  tolijsde  (Psa.,  Ixxii,  15;  ic  pws  fulfremedlkc 
gelufod^^amatus  sum  (.^If.  Gr.,  26). 

417.  The  Pluperfect  represents  an  action  as  completed  at  some  definite 
past  time.     It  is  denoted 

(1.)  By  hxfde:  hwfde  hine  gcporhtnc,  \\G\\ad  made  him  (C,  17,  4)  ; 
gefaren  h.rfdon,  they  had  gone  (Bed.,  1,  23). 

(2.)  By  pa's  with  such  as  have  a  perfect  in  com:  p^rs  Jid  lenctcn  dguii, 
spring  had  gone  (El.,  1227).  Passive  : — pcTS-\--p.  p.  of  transitives  :  pa 
se  HMend  gefullod  pa^s,  he  dstcih,  when  the  Saviour  had  been  baptized, 
he  came  up  (Matt.,  iii,  16) ; — pees  gepordcn-\-\t.  p.  :  ccaru  pxs  genipod 


190  TENSES.— MODES. 

gcpordcn,  care  had  been  renewed  (B.,  1304) ;  ic  pxs  gcfyrn  gelufud= 
Lat.  amatus  cram  (/Elf.  Gr.,  20). 

Subjunctive  Tenses. 

418.  The  tenses  follow  in  general  those  of  the  indicative,  but 
tiiue  is  indefinitely  expressed  in  relation  to  the  speaker.  Futurity 
runs  -with  doubtful  possibility.  In  indirect  sentences  the  time  is 
to  be  taken  in  relation  to  that  of  the  principal  verb. 

The  Imperfect  often  expresses  time  as  future  from  a  past  of  the  prin- 
cipal verb :  ic  spor  pxt  ic  hinc  ham  brohte,  I  swore  that  I  ivould  bring  him 
home  (Gen.,  xUv,  32)  ; — with  auxiUary :  pohtan  pxt  hit  ofergdn  sceolde, 
they  thought  that  it  would  go  by  (Ciir.,  1053) ;  pold  pmt  sceoldon  bodian, 
wished  that  they  should  preach  (Horn.,  2,  20) ; — Future  perfect:  pxt  polde 
pyncan  pundorlic,  gif  Anig  Ar  pam  s&de  pxt  hit  spa  gepurdan  sceolde,  that 
would  have  seemed  wonderful  if  any  before  that  had  said  that  it  should  so 
happen  (Chr.,  1052). 

Sequence  of  Tenses. 

419.  Principal  tenses  depend  on  principal  tenses;  historical  on 
historical. 

Exceptions. — I.  Present  +  Past,  {a.)  A  present  narration  or  question  of 
a  past  fact :  eart  pu  se  man  Pte  pxre  afed,  art  thou  the  man  who  was  fed  ? 
(Boet.,  3,  1) ; — comparison  of  present  and  past :  he  is  gen  spa  he  pxs,  he  is  . 
still  as  he  was  (Ex.,  334,  5).  II.  Perfect+Past:  Pm  hxfst  forgiten  para 
pxpnd  pe  ic  pe  sealde,  thou  hast  forgotten  the  weapons  that  I  gave  thee 
(Boet.,  3,  1).  III.  Past+ Present ; — a  truth  in  narrative:  pa  Sciddeds,p)e 
on  odre  healfe  bi'igiad,  ne  geheordon,  the  Scythians,  wlio  live  on  the  other 
side,  had  not  heard  (the  Roman  name)  (Boet.,  18,  2); — quasi  oratio  directa 
in  past  narration  :  ^  413,  6.     Compare  ^  288,  c. 


MODES. 
The   Indicative,  §  151, 

420.  The  indicative  is  used  in  assertions,  questions,  and 
assumptions  to  express  simple  predication. 

(a.)  Primary.  It  is  the  primary  form,  to  be  used  every  where  unless 
there  is  reason  for  some  other. 

{h.)  Real. — Since  there  is  a  special  mode  for  what  may  be  and  might  he, 
the  indicative  is  used  in  contrast  to  speak  of  things  as  real  ox  fact.  So  in 
a  protasis,  ^431. 

(c.)  Imperative. — Tiie  indicative  future  may  be  used  for  the  imperative  : 
six  dagds  pu  pircst,  six  days  shalt  thou  labor  (Exod.,  x.xxi,  15) ;  ne  pylt  pu 


THE  SUBJUNCTIVE.  191 

me  gcscyndan,  Lat.  noli   me  confundere,  please   not  confound  me  (Psa., 
cxviii,  31).     So  in  Greek  (Hadley,  710)  and  Latin  (Harkness,  470). 

The   8  ub  j  unctite,  §  151. 

421.  The  subjunctive  is  used  to  express  mere  possibil- 
ity, doubt,  or  wish. 

The  Teutonic  subjunctive  has  the  general  range  of  the  Latin  subjunctive, 
together  with  the  infinitive  having  a  subject  accusative.     Compare  ^  293,  a. 

1.  In  declarative  sentences  (hypothetical)  :  naire  min  brodor  dead,  my 
brother  would  not  have  died  (Joh.,  xi,  21) ;  punige  pier  he  punige,  he  may 
dwell  where  he  may  dwell=wherever  he  may  dwell  (^Ectr.,  vi,  3,  1).  So 
in  Greek  (Hadley,  722)  and  Latin  (Harkness,  480). 

2.  Interrogative  sentences  (doubt)  :  kpd  ne  mxge  pafian,  who  can  fail 
to  wonder'?  (Met.,  28,  43)  ;  hpi  pu  ikfre  poldc,  how  couldst  thou  ever  wish  1 
(]Met.,  4,  33).     So  in  Greek  (Hadley,  720,  c)  and  Latm  (Harkness,  480). 

3.  Imperative  sentences;  1st  person  (exhortation  or  request)  : /are  y^e 
OH  tunas,  go  we  to  the  towns  (Mc,  i,  38)  ;  up-dhebben  pe  his  naman,  exalt 
we  his  name  (Psa.,  xxxiii,  3) ;  uton  gdn,  let  us  go  (Mc,  14,  42) ;— 2d 
person  (command)  :  ne  sperigen  ge,  swear  not  (^If.  LL.  48) ;  nellon  ge 
pesan,  do  not  be  (Matt.,  vi,  16); — 3d  person  (wish,  demand)  :  si  Gode  lof, 
praise  be  to  God  (Chr.,  1009)  ;  sib  si  mid  eopic,  peace  be  with  you  (Ex., 
282,  25) ;  beon  gegaderode  pa  pattern,  let  the  waters  be  gathered  (Gen.,  i, 
0).     So  in  Greek  (Hadley,  720,  a)  and  Latin  (Harkness,  487). 

4.  Exclamatory  (wish,  abridged  subordinates)  :  Ed  Id!  pxt  hit  purdc, 
Oh !  that  it  might  be  (Met.,  8,  39)  ;  Ed  Id !  gif  ic  moste  geefenls&can,  Oh  ! 
if  I  might  imitate  (the  blessed  Lawrence)  (Horn.,  1,  432) ;  Ed  Id!  gif  pu 
p&re  hund.  Ah !  if  (=would)  thou  wert  a  dog  (Hom.,  2,  308).  So  in  Greek 
(Hadley,  721)  and  Latin  (Harkness,  488,  1). 

5.  In  Co-ordinate  and  Subordinate  clauses  the  subjunctive  may  every 
where  be  used  as  in  the  above  examples  to  express  a  separate  possibility, 
doubt,  or  wish.  Disjunctives  (doubt)  :  sam  pe  pillan,  sam  pe  nyllan, 
whether  we  will,  or  nill  (Boet.,  34,  12)  ;  si  hit  man,  si  hit  nytcn,  be  it  man, 
be  it  beast  (Exod.,  xix,  13).  For  adversatives,  §  432 ;  for  causals, 
§  433. 

(a.)  Subordinates  share  in  the  general  possibility,  doubt,  or  desire  of  their  sentence, 
and  take  the  subjunctive  in  many  cases  where  it  is  not  obviously  the  expression  of  either. 
Hence  the  following  discussion,  §5  422-434. 

The  Subjunctive  in  Subordinate  Clauses. 

422.  The  subjunctive  may  be  used  by  attraction  in  clauses 
subordinate  to  a  subjunctive. 

(a.)  Cases  of  so-called  attraction  are  mostly  better  explained  as  illogical 
conformation  with  some  of  the  other  rules  :  ponne  pu  sanig  ping  bcgite  pxs 
pe  pu  pene  pxt  me  Ucigc,  when  thou  any  thing  mayst  take  of  that  thou 


192  SUBJUNCTIVE  IN  SUBSTANTIVE  CLAUSES. 

mayst  know  {=knoivcst)  that  may  please  me  {=1  like)  (Gen.,  xxvii,  3). 
Compare  Latin  (Harkness,  527),  Greek  (lladlcy,  738). 

A.  Substantive  Clauses,  §  283. 

423.  TIic  subjunctive  may  be  used  in  a  substantive  clause 
expressing  something-  said,  as/ced,X/iov(/ht,  toished,  or  do}ie. 

(a.)  The  indicative  is  used  in  tlie  same  clauses  to  emphasize  reality  or  fact,  §  420,  b. 

(6.)  These  clauses  ofteuest  represent  an  infinitive  with  a  subject  accusative  in  Latin  and 
Greek,  but  sometimes  in  them  also  the  subjunctive  is  used  (Harkness,  549-558  •  Hadlcy 
7C3+). 

424 — I.  The  clause  may  be  a  subject,  oftenest  of  a  copula,  impersonal 
or  passive. 

(a.)  An  indirect  assertion  or  question  :  hit  is  s&d  pmt  he  dhofe,  it  is  said 
that  he  raised  (up  his  hands)  (Bed.,  3,  16)  ;  ne  pxs  me  cud,  hpxder  egesa 
pmre,  it  was  not  known  to  me,  whether  there  was  fear  (of  God)  (C.,2710). 

(^1.)  Something  cognized:  puhtc  him  pxt  fscgre  stode  pudubedm,  it  seem- 
ed to  him  that  a  forest  tree  stood  fair  (C,  247, 17). 

(c.)  Something  to  be  desired,  as  fit,  necessary,  enough,  pleasant,  etc.  : 
Jje  ys  hetere,  pxt  an  p'lnrd  forpeorde,  it  is  better  for  thee  that  one  of  thy 
members  perish  (Matt.,  v,  30) ;  gedafenad Pxt  hi  heord  Idre  gymon,  it  be- 
seems (priests)  that  they  their  lore  heed  (Horn.,  2,  342). 

425. — II.  The  clause  may  be  an  object. 

(a.)  An  indirect  assertion  or  question:  cpedad pxt  pu  sie  hlxfdige,  they 
say  that  thou  art  a  lady  (Ex.,  18,  15) ;  sxged pxt  hit  come,  he  says  that  it 
came  (from  God)  (C,  683) ;  he  sxgde  pxt  Saira  his  speostor  pxre,  he  said 
that  Sarah  was  his  sister  (C,  158,  27) ; — hpxt  secge  ge  pxt  ic  s'lg,  what  say 
ye  that  I  am?  (Matt.,  xvi,  15);  Gregorius  befran  hpxder  folc  Cristen 
pxre,  pe  hxden,  Gregory  asked  whether  the  people  Christian  were  or 
heathen  (Horn.,  2,  120)  ;  frxgn  gif  him  pxre,  asked  if  to  him  were  (a 
pleasant  night)  (B.,  1319). 

{b.)  Object  of  cognition  :  pende  pxt  se  mxsta  dxl  pxre,  weened  that  the 
most  was  (aboard)  (Chr.,  911) ;  gclyfe  Jjxt  hit  cume,I  believe  that  it  came 
(from  God)  (C,  679). 

(c.)  Object  of  desire  or  fear  (hope,  heed,  doubt,  pray,  etc.),  see  ^  315: 
ic  pylle  pxt  he  punige,  I  will  that  he  wait  (John,  xxi,  22) ;  hopode  pxt  he 
gesupe,  hoped  that  he  might  see  (Luc,  23,  8)  ;  so  onegan,  fear  (C,  110,  1)  ; 
begymad,  heed  (Matt.,  vi,  1)  ;  biddad,  pray  (Exod.,  ix,  28),  etc. 

{d.)  Object  done  :  do  symble  pxt  ic  x  pine  metige,  I  do  continually  that  I 
meditate  thy  law=English  emphatic  form  I  do  meditate  (Psa.,  cxviii,  174); 
see  further  ^  406,  a. 

426 — III.  The  clause  may  limit  a  noun  or  adjective  :  sylle  ponne  dd pxt 
he  nelle  peof  be6n,t3ke  the  oath  that  he  will  not  a  thief  be  (LL.  Cnut.,ii, 
21) ;  heo  geornust  bid  pxt  hco  dfxre  fleogan,  she  is  earnest  to  (that  she) 
frighten  flies  (Ps.,  89,  10). 


IN  ADJECTIVE  CLAUSES.— ADVERBIAL.        193 

(a.)  The  clause  is  an  appositive  or  genitive;  in  most  cases  might  be  conceived  as  ad- 
verbial of  purpose  or  result.  The  same  modal  idea  is  here  in  a  noun  or  adjective  which  in 
I.  and  n.  is  in  the  verb. 

B.  Adjective  Clauses,  §  283. 

427.  The  subjunctive  may  be  used  in  indefinite  adjective 
clauses. 

Hypothetical  lelative  sentence  (Harkness,  501 ;  Hadley,  757) :  syle 
pam  pe  pe  bidde,  give  to  him  tliat  asketh  thee=:if  any  one  ask  (Matt.,  v,  42) ; 
gehyre  se  pe  edran  hxbbe,  let  him  hear  who  has  ears  (Mc,  4,  9) ;  pyrce 
hpd  pxt  psst  he  pxjrce,  odde  do  pmt  pxt  he  do,  one  may  work  that,  that  (what- 
ever) he  may  work,  or  do  that,  that  he  may  do  (Boet.,  37,  2). 

C.  Adverbial   Clauses,  §28  3. 

428. — I.  Clauses  of  Place.     The  subjunctive  may  be 

used  iu  indefinite  adverbial  clauses  of  place.  Compare  §  427. 
Far,pi&r  pu  freondd  pene,  go  where  thou  hopest  for  friends  (Gu.,  262) ; 
hafd  Uetsunge  pjcbrpafere,  take  a  blessing  wherever  thou  goest  (An.,  224)  ; 
pic  geceos  p&r  pje  leofost  sie,  choose  a  residence  where  to  thee  pleasantest 
may  be  (C,  2723).  Oftenest  indicative  :  puna  p&r  pe  leofost  ys,  dwell 
where  to  thee  pleasantest  is  (Gen.,  xx,  15) ;  so  with  spd  hpdr  spd,  wher- 
ever (Chr.,  1130)  ;  spd  hpider  spd,  whithersoever  (Mc,  14,  14). 

429.— II.  Clauses  of  Time. 

The  subjunctive  may  be  used  iu  adverbial  clauses  of  future 
or  indefinite  time.     (Compare  Hark.,  518-523  ;  Hadley,  769.) 

(a.)  Future:  ne  givst  pit  panone  d'r  pu  dgylde,  thoa  goest  not  thence 
before  thou  shalt  pay  (Matt.,  v,  26)  ;  ic  pxs  ler  pam  P)e  Abraham  pxre, 
I  was  before  Abraham  was  (Jolin,  viii,  58)  ;  gesprsac  Beopulf,  &r  he  stige, 
Beowulf  said  before  he  mounted  (B.,  67G)  ;  puniad  pdr  bd  pxt  ge  iitgdn, 
stay  there  till  ye  depart  (Mc,  6,  10)  ;  he  sohte  6d  he  funde,  he  sought  till 
he  found  (the  cup)  (Gen.,  xliv,  12).  In  Greek,  Trpiu  with  an  infinitive, 
Hadley,  769. 

(b.)  Indefinite  :  panne  pu  fxstc,  smyrd  pin  heafod,  when  thou  fastest, 
anoint  thy  head  (Matt.,  vi,  17)  ;  bad,  hponnc  peard  reste  dgedfe,  waited, 
(for  the  time)  when  the  Lord  should  give  rest  (C,  1428)  ;  so  with  penden, 
until  (B.,  1224) ;  spd  lange  spd  (Deut.,  x.xii,  29);  pd  hpile  pe  (LL.  .^dr., 
vl,  12). 

430. — III.  Clauses  of  Manner  (iutensity). 

The  subjunctive  may  be  used  in  clauses  of  comparison 
expressing  that  which  is  imagined  or  indefinite,  or  descrip- 
tive of  a  force  (Hark.,  501,  4). 

(a.)  pxs  sc  7nuna,  spilce  he  pxre  mid  Mode  hcgotcn,  the  moon  was  as  if 
it  were  with  blood  washed  (Chr.,  734) ;  bete  spd  hit  riht  sie,  let  him  pay  as 

N 


194    SUBJUNCTIVE.— CONDITIONAL.— CONCESSIVE.— FINAL. 

it  may  be  riglit  (LL.  JEIC,  38) ;  strcngrc  ponne  rose  sy,  (I  am)  more  fra- 
grant than  any  rose  may  be  (Ex.,  423,  19) ;  pu  gesyhst  mare  ponne  pis  sy, 
thou  shalt  see  more  than  this  is  (John,  i,  50),  an  extreme  case. 

{h.)  Consecutive  clauses,  descriptive  of  a  force  :  spa  stearc  pinter  pxt  ic 
durre  lulian,  winter  so  severe  that  I  dare  to  stay  at  home  (.^Ifc.  Col.). 
Compare  ^  434. 

431. — IV.  Conditional  Clauses,  §  283,  p.  14I. 

The  subjunctive  is  used  iu  n  protasis  Avlien  proposed  as 
possible,  the  imperfect  when  assumed  as  unreal.  (So  iu  Latin 
and  Greek,  Hark.,  502+  ;  Had.,  V44+.) 

(The  indicative  proposes  as  real :  gif  ga  Ahrahamcs  beam  synd,  since  ye  Abraham's  chil- 
dren are  (do  his  works)  (John,  viii,  39).) 

{a.)  Present :  gif  mec  hild  nime,  onscnd  Higeldce,  if  me  battle  take, 
send  to  Higelac  (B.,  452).    For  inverted  clauses,  §  485,  G,  c. 

{b.)  Imperfect :  gif  pu  p&re  her,  mire  min  brodor  dead,  if  thou  hadst 
been  here,  my  brother  had  not  died  (John,  xi,  32). 

(c.)  So  with  on  pxt  gcrdd  pxt,  on  condition  that  (Chr.,  945)  ;  put  pam  pe, 
same  (Gen.,  xxix,  27). 

(t?.)  Negative  condition  :  biiton  hpd  beo  ednipan  gecenned,  unless  one  be 
born  again  (he  shall  not  see  God's  kingdom)  (John,  iii,  3) ;  so  nefne  (B., 
1056);  neinne  (Ex.,  124, 12) ;  nymde  (C,  205,  19)  ;  bulan  pjxnne,  {pa)  ex- 
cept when  (Men.,  82;  Sat.,  391). 

432. — V.  Concessive  Clauses. 

The  subjunctive  may  be  used  in  a  concessive  clause. 

Hpxt  frcmad,  pedh  he  gcstryne,  what  profiteth  it,  though  he  gain  (the 
whole  world)  (Matt.,  xvi,  26);  pu  scealt  dreogan,  pedh  pin  pit  duge,  thou 
shalt  suffer,  though  thy  wit  is  good  (B.,  589) ;  pjedh  pu  to  hanan  purde, 
though  thou  wast  a  murderer  (B.,  587).     For  inverted  clauses,  ^  485, 6,  c. 

(a.)  The  indicative  is  used  in  similar  clauses.    The  English  discrimination  between  the 
first  and  second  examples  was  growing. 
(6.)  So  in  Latin  (Hark.,  514+) ;  for  Greek,  see  Iladley,  8T4. 

433. — VI.  Final  Clauses.  The  subjunctive  is  used  in 
clauses  expressing  purpose.  (So  in  Latin  and  Greek,  Hark., 
500+ ;  Had.,  739  +  .) 

(a.)  Present:  sete  pine  hand  ofer  hig,  pxt  hco  hdl  sy  and  libbe,  lay  thy 
hand  upon  her,  that  she  may  be  whole  and  live  (Mc,  5,  23). 

(J).)  Imperfect :  genam  pxt  pi f  pxt  he  bespice,  (the  devil)  took  the  woman 
(as  aid)  that  he  might  deceive  (the  man)  (Job,  166). 

(c.)  Negative  clauses  with  py  Ixs,  Lat.  quo-minus,  or  py  Ixs  /e>Eng. 
lest :  sMde  scip,  py  Ixs  ydd  prym  forprecan  meahte,  fastened  the  ship, 
lest  the  waves'  force  might  wreck  it  (B.,  1918) ;  beron,  py  Ixs  pe  pin  fot 
xtspornc,  they  bear  (thee),  lest  (so  that  less  by  that)  thy  foot  may  dash 
against  (a  stone)  (Matt.,  iv,  6). 


POTENTIAL.  195 

434.— VII.  Consecutive  Clauses. 

The  subjunctive  may  be  used  to  express  a  result. 

Gif  mon  ste  dumb  odde  deaf  geboren,  J)mt  he  ne  mxge  his  synnd  onsec- 
■gan,  if  one  be  bom  dumb  or  deaf,  so  that  he  can  not  deny  his  crimes  (^Elf. 
LL.,  14).     Consecutive  modal  clauses  in  spa  pxt,  see  §  430,  b.     So  in  Lat., 
Hark.,  501 ;  in  Greek,  Hote  with  an  infinitive  (Hadley,  770). 

The  Potential,  §§  151,176. 

435.  The  potential  expresses  power,  liberty,  permission, 
necessity,  or  duty. 

{a.)  In  some  cases  it  is  only  a  periphrastic  form  of  the  subjunctive  or  im« 
perative  ;  in  most  cases  it  adds  a  distinct  notion  of  power  in  some  form. 

{b.)  The  indicative  form  of  the  auxiliary  sometimes  takes  the  place  of  the 
subjunctive  ending  of  the  principal  verb,  but  generally  a  subjunctive  clause 
retains  the  subjunctive  form  of  the  auxiliary,  making  a  doubly-expressed 
possibility,  or  doubt,  or  ivish  :  ic  nu  syllan  polde,  I  now  ivoidd  wish  to  give 
(B.,2729). 

(c.)  The  principal  verb  takes  the  infinitive,  except  after  earn  and  habban, 
where  the  gerund  is  used. 

(d.)  The  principal  verb  is  often  omitted,  especially  a  verb  of  motion  before 
an  adverb  of  place.     Examples  under  each. 

436. — 1.  Maeg  {^^  176,  212),  physical  power;  —  declarative:  ic  mwg 
pesan  God,  I  can  be  God  (C,  18,  35)  ; — (hypothetical),  edde  mihte  Crist 
punian,  ea,s\\y  might  Christ  have  dwelt  (Horn.,  1, 164) ; — subordinate  clauses, 
e.  g.  conditional ;  g'lfheo  meahte,  if  she  might,  (she  chose)  (Bed.,  4,  23) ; — 
final :  heo  polde  hire  edel  forl&ten,  pxt  heo  meahte  gcearnian,  she  would 
give  up  her  estate,  that  she  might  earn  (one  in  heaven)  (same) ; — principal 
verb  omitted  :  helle  gatii  ne  mdgon  ongeun  pa,  hell's  gates  can  not  (prevail) 
against  it  (Matt.,  xvi,  18). 

437. — 2.  Can  (^§  176,  212)  :  12c  can  ic  cop,  I  know  you  not  (Matt.,  xxv, 
12;  frequent).  Intellectual  power; — declarative:  ic  can  eop  l&ran,!  can 
teach  you  (Sat., 250) ; — subordinate  clauses; — conditional:  ponne  he  ne  can 
ongitan,  if  he  can  not  understand  (Boet.,  39,  2) ; — principal  verb  omitted  ; 
saga,  gif  pu  cunne,  say,  if  thou  can  (say)  (El.,  857)  ;  dydon  spa  hie  cudon, 
did  as  they  could  (do)  (C,  232,  11). 

438. — 3.  Mot  {^^  176, 212),  possibility  through  permission  :  piir  ic  sittan 
mot  sumorlangne  d;vg,\\\exe,  I  may  sit  the  summer-long  day  (Ex.,  443,  28) ; 
— duty:  mot  ic  him  forgifan,  should  I  forgive  him  (seven  times)?  (Matt., 
xviii,  21)  ; — necessity  (rare)  :  eallc  pe  moton  speltan,  all  we  must  die  (Exod., 
xii,  33)  ; — subordinate  clauses  ; — object :  bied  psst  he  mSste  niman,  besought 
that  he  might  take  (away  the  body)  (John,  xix,  38) ; — omission  of  principal 
verb  :  gif  {p^)  I'idcr  moton,\i\sc  thither  might  (go)  (Sat., 302). 

439. — 1.  Dear,  dorste  {^^  176,  212),  power  of  will  in  danger:  nc  dear 


196  POTENTIAL.— IMPERATIVE. 

ford gdn,I  dare  not  go  forth  (C,  54,  I) ;  subordinate  clauses; — result:  he 
pws  to-gefultumiendc,  pxt  him  mon  noht  hcfiges  gedon  dorste,  Lat.  ipse 
juvans,  ne  qui  (iis)  quicquam  molesticc  inferret,he  was  helping,  so  that 
no  one  might  {dare)  do  anything  grievous  to  them  (Bed.,  5,  II);  rarely 
auxiliary. 

440. — 5.  pille  (i^^  17G,  212).  Present; — declarative  future  indicative, 
sec  ^  415  ; — imperative  :  ne  pille  jm  pepan,  Lat.  noli  plorare  (Ilark.,  538), 
please  not  weep  (Bed.,  4,29)  ;  ne  pylt  pu,  same  (Psa.,  cii,  2).  Imperfect : 
— declarative  :  ic  suna  mmum  syllan  polde,  I  to  my  son  would  give  (if  I  had 
one)  (B.,  2729).  Subordinate  clauses; — purpose,  result :  pxs  gepunod pml 
he  polde  gdn  to  5;b,  was  wont  to  go  to  the  sea  (Hom.,  2,  138) ; — principal 
verb  omitted  :  hpxnne  pu  me  pylle  to,  when  thou  wilt  (come)  to  me  (Psa., 
c,  1,  and  often). 

441. — 6.  Sceal,  sceolde  {^^  17G,  212)  :  hu  miccl  sccalt  pii,  how  much 
owest  thou  1  (Luc,  16,5.  Matt.,xviii,24)  ; — necessity  under  law  or  external 
force  :  be  ure  &  he  sceal  speltan,  by  our  law  he  ought  to  die  (John,  xix,  7)  ; 
— necessity  for  a  purpose :  ic  Me  sceal  wrest  gepinnian,  pset  ic  siddan  m&ge, 
I  must  first  dispel  them,  that  I  afterward  may  (bring  light  (Boet.,  5,  3)  ; — a 
future  sign,  see  ^  415  ; — imperative  :  ge  sculon  herigcan,  IjZ.t.  laudate,  Tpva.ise 
ye  (the  name  of  the  Lord)  (Psa.,  cxii,  3).  Imperfect:  spijlc  sceolde  secg 
pesa7i  pegn,  snch  a  warrior  should  a  thane  be  (B.,2708); — subordinate 
clauses:  he  cpxd pjwt  hclle  healdan  sceolde,  he  said  that  he  should  inhabit 
hell  (C,  530) ; — passive  :  forhtian pxt  he  gelxded  hcon  sceolde,io  fear  that 
he  should  be  led  (to  hell)  (Bed.,  3, 13)  ; — result :  nyd pxt  he  hrxdltcor  feran 
sceolde,  need  that  he  should  travel  more  rapidly  (Bed.,  3,  14)  ; — principal 
verb  omitted  :  ic  him  xfter  sceal, 1  shall  (go)  after  him  (B.,2816). 

442. — 7.  ]5earf,  need  (^^  176,  212),  common  as  a  notional  verb,  rare  as 
an  auxiliary  :  syle  me  pxt  pxter,pxt  me  ne  Pyrste,  ne  ic  ne  purfe  her  feccan, 
Lat.  ut  non  sitiam  neque  veniam  hue  haurire,  give  me  the  water,  that  I  may 
not  thirst,  nor  jieed  {come)  here  to  draw  (John,  iv,  15). 

443. — 8.  TS ton,  putun,  O.  Saxon  wita  (^^  176,  324,  c),  pres.  subj.  plur. 
1st  of  pitan,  to  go.  Compare  Lat.  eamus,  age,  It.  andiamo,  Fr.  allons; — 
imperative  clauses:  putun  gangan  to,  let  us  advance  (B.,  2648) ;  utan  to- 
brecan,  let  us  break  (their  bonds)  (Psa.,  ii,  3) ;  uten  is  in  Layamon,  but  the 
common  form  is  the  subjunctive  with  we :  lete  we  Peos  ferde  bilxue,  and 
speke  we  of  Ar dure,  let  we  this  host  remain,  and  speak  we  of  Arthur  (25407). 
The  English  pure  auxiliary  let  is  later  yet. 

For  potential  eom,  i^^  451 ;  415,  6.     For  heebbe,  ^^  453,  a ;  415,  5. 


The   Imperative,  §§  149,  151. 
444.  The  imperative  is  used  in  comvianch. 

Gd,  go  (Mc,  5,  8)  ;  gang  pu,  go  thou  (Matt.,  iv,  10)  ;  gdd,  go  ye  (Exod., 
v,  18);  ne  beod  ge,he  not  ye  (C,  194,  11). 


INFINITIVE  AND  GERUND.— INFINITIVE.  I97 

(a.)  In  hypothetical  sentences  :  secad  and  ge  hitfindad,  seek  and  (=if 
ye  seek)  ye  shall  find  (Matt.,  vii,  7). 

(e.)  Subjunctive  for  imperative,  ^  421,  3. 
Indicative  for  imperative,  ^  420,  c. 
"Potential,  pille,  ^  440;  sculon,  ^  441. 
(c.)  So  through  the  Indo-European  tongues. 

The  Infixitive   and  Gerund. 

445.  Their  forms,  §§  173-175,  177,  181,  352,  V. 

1.  The  infinitive  in  an  rarely  uses  to  :  micel  is  to  secgan,  there  is  much 
to  say  (Gu.,  502) ;  dfysed  bid  to  secan,  it  is  prepared  to  seek  (Ph.,  275) ;  so 
B.,  316  ;  C,  220,  25  ;  Ex.  187,  27,  etc.     Grein. 

2.  The  gerund  in  -ende  appears  in  the  later  manuscripts  of  the  Chronicle, 
and  spreads:  Nero  dgan  to  rixiende^^exo  began  to  rule  (Chr.,  49)  he 
sende  to  bodiende,  he  sent  to  preach  (604) ;  coman  Crist  to  purdiende,  they 
came  to  honor  Christ  (2).     See  ^  460.     So  in  ^Ifric's  Grammar. 

3.  The  infinitive  and  gerund  sometimes  interchange  in  most  of  their  uses, 
if  not  all. 

4.  Tlie  progressive  future  is  rare  :  ongedte  hine  hahbende  beon,  he  knew 
himself  to  be  about  having,  Lat.  se  fuisse  habiturum  (Bed.,  5,  8). 

5.  Future  passive  :  ne  tpeoge  ic  me  gelxded  beon,  I  did  not  doubt  myself 
about  to  be  led,  Lat.  me  rapiendum  esse  (Bed.,  3,  13). 

6.  iElfric  gives  as  the  Latin  future  active  amatum  ire  vel  amalurum  esse, 
Anglo-Saxon /aran  lufian,  to  be  going  to  love  ;  vis  doctum  ire,  pilt  pu  gdn 
leornian,  will  you  go  to  learning  (^If.  Gram.,  p.  25).  The  English  is  a 
true  future=«o  be  about  to  love.  Sure  examples  oi  faran  or  gdn,  without 
notional  force,  are  needed  from  Anglo-Saxon  literature.    See  §§  443  ;  415,  4. 

Infinitive,  §§  149,151. 

446.  The  infinitive  is  construed  as  a  neuter  noun.  (So  in 
other  tongues :  Latin,  Hark.,  548  ;  Greek,  Had.,  762 -f-.) 

447. — 1.  A  subject:  hine  ridan  lyste,  to  ride  pleases  him  (Boet.,  34, 
7) ;  dlyfd  on  Reste-dagum  pel  don,  is  to  do  well  lawful  on  Sabbath  days  ? 
(Luc,  6,  9) ;  sometimes  with  to:  is  dlyfed  on  Reste-dagum  pel  to  donne,  it 
is  lawful  on  Sabbath  days  to  do  well  (Matt.,  xii,  12). 

448. — 2.  Direct  object.— (1)' Of  beginning  and  ending  (acts  exerted 
on  other  acts)  :  ongunnon  rsbran  rihf,  began  to  establish  right  (C,  2,  17) ; 
Romane  blunnun  ricsian,  Romans  ceased  to  rule  (Bed.,  1,  11)  ;— (2)  of 
motive  (acts  moving  to  other  acts — desire,  seek,  intend,  expect,  dare,  dread, 
etc.)  :  pille  faran,  I  wish  to  go  (Horn.,  2,  372)  ;  secad  to  (John,  viii,  40)  ; 
Pencad  (C.,2430);  myntan  (B.,712);  ne  dear  ic  faran,!  dare  not  go 
(Gen.,  xliv,  34) ;  ceara  (C,  2279) ;— (3)  definitive  object  of  ability,  duty, 
habit  (acts  and  states  defined  by  acts)  :  ic  mwg  secgan,  I  am  able  to  say 


198  INFINITIVE. -GERUND. 

(Cn.,317);  cudoji  don, were  able  to  do  (C,  189) ;  he  sceal  speltan,ho 
ought  to  die  (John,  xix,  7) ;  gcjmncdon  modcr  cj/gcan,  they  were  wont  to 
call  (her)  mother  (Bed.,  4,  23) ; — (4)  general  motion  defined  by  specific 
motion:  fleon  gcpdt,he  went  to  fly :=  he  flew  away  (C,  130,  23);  com 
flcogan,  came  flying  (89,  10) ;  com  gongan  (B.,  710) ;  com  drifan,  came 
driving=fell  (on  a  rock)  (Bed.,  5,  0) ;  so  with  faran,f(:ran,  glidan,  ndan, 
scrktan,  sktian,  trcdan,  etc.  See  further  under  Participles,  §  458, 2. 
(a.)  These  forms  run  to  periphrastic  forms  of  the  future  and  potential,  see  5§  415, 435+. 

449. — 3.  The  infinitive  is  used  as  a  final  object  to  express 
an  act  of  the  first  object. 

Tliis  occurs  oftenest  after  verbs  of 

(a.)  Cognition :  geseah  nncd  manigc  spcfan,  saw  many  heroes  sleep 
(B.,  729);  leodc  secgan  hyrde,  heard  people  say  (B.,  134G) ;  ongeate  hine 
habbende  beon,  he  knew  (himself  to  be  having)  that  he  should  have  (this 
number  of  years)  (Bed.,  5,  8) ;  so  after  seon,  gehyran,  gefrignan,  findan, 
{d)fandian,  gemetan,  etc.  The  direct  object  is  sometimes  omitted  :  secgaii 
hyrde,  I  heard  say  (B.,  582).  Teaching:  Ivcr  us  gebiddaii,  tea.ch  us  to 
pray  (Luc,  II,  1). 

(i.)  Bidding :  bxd  hine  faran,  bade  him  go  (Chr.,  1050) ;  hdtan  men 
gcpyrcean,  ordered  men  to  build  (B.,  69)  ;  so  with  {be)beodan,  forbeodan, 
etc.  Direct  object  omitted :  hxt  fcaldan  pxt  segl,  orders  to  furl  the  sail 
(Boet.,  41,  o). 

(c.)  Let :  leion  holm  bc7-an,\et  the  sea  bear  him  (B.,  48) ;  hitatt  Jm 
lytlingds  to  me  cuman,  suffer  the  little  ones  to  come  to  me  (Luc,  18,  16). 
So  forlxtan,  alyfan. 

(d.)  Make  :  dcd  hi  calle  beofian,  makes  it  all  tremble  (Psa.,  ciii,  30). 

{a,  b,  c.)  With  passives  :  pxs  gesepen  blod  pcallan,  blood  was  seen  to 
spring  from  the  ground  (Chr.,  1100);  hard  and  spyn  synt  forbodene  to 
xt-hrmenne,  hares  and  swine  are  forbidden  to  touch  (Lev.,  xi,  6-8) ; — wish- 
ing: polde  hyne  genemnedne  beon,  he  wished  him  to  be  named  (Luc,  1, 
62). 

Note.— This  construction  gives  rise  to  the  accusative  before  the  iofluitive,  for  which  see 
§  293. 

Gerund,  §§  17  3,  175. 

450.  The  so-called  gerund  usually  answers  to  the  I^atin  gerund,  supine, 
or  ut  with  the  subjunctive.     But  see  ^  445,  3. 

451. — I.  The  gerund  after  tlic  copula  cxi^rcsses  what  must, 
may,  or  should  be  done. 

Mannes  sunu  is  to  syllanne,  the  Son  of  Man  must  be  delivered  up  (Matt., 
xvii,  22) ;  his  apostolus  to  farenne  pwron,  his  apostles  were  to  go  (LL. 
-^If.,  49, 1) ;  seo  lufu  is  dd  on  mode  to  hcaldamie,\o\e  should  always 
be  kept  in  mind  (Bed.,  1,  27). 


GERtTND.— ATTRIBUTIVE.— OBJECTIVE.— ADVEEBIAL.     I99 

(ft.)  The  act  may  be  done  to  or  by  the  subject. 

(6.)  Latin  periphrastic  conjugations  in  -rus  and  -dus  (Hark.,  §5  22T-233). 

452. — II.  Attributive.  The  gerund  is  sometimes  used  to 
describe  or  define  a  noun. 

Neod  is  to  dunne,  there  is  need  of  acting  (LL.  iEdr.,  vi,  42) ;  gepeald 
to  gyrpanne,  power  of  working  (C,  280) ;  m&l  to  feran,  time  to  go 
(B.,  316) ;  mihte  to  forlMenne,  power  to  forgive  (John,  xix,  10  ;  Mc, 
2,10). 

(a.)  Latin  genitive  of  the  gerund  (Hark.,  563). 

453. — III.  Objective.  The  gerund  may  be  used  as  a  final 
object  to  exjjress  an  act  on  the  first  object. 

After  verbs  of  having  and  giving  :  ic  hxbbe  mete  to  etanne,!  have  meat 
to  eat  (John,  iv,  32) ;  syltt  me  hlcif  to  etenne,  gives  me  bread  to  eat 
(Gen.,xxviii,20) ;  ic  sende  flxsc  to  etanne,!  send  flesh  to  eat  (Exod., 
xvi,  12). 

Note  nim  pxt  ic  pe  to  sillenne  habbe,  take  that  I  to  thee  to  give  have, 
(Ap.,  12) ;  ic  hwbbe  pe  to  secgcnne  sum  ping,  I  have  something  to  say 
to  thee  (Luc.,  7,  40),  Lat.  hccc  dicere  habeo  (Cic.  N.  D.,  3,  39),  Oviiv 
uvTUTrtiv  t'xw  (^sch.  Prom.,  51); — direct  object  omitted:  hire  sj/llan 
etan,  to  give  to  her  to  eat,  Lat.  hihere  dari  (Liv.,  40,  47),  coOijvai  ^aydv 
(Luc,  8,  55). 

(a.)  Hence  a  periphrastic  future  I  have  to  drink  =  I  shall  drink,  §  415,  5. 
(6.)  The  gerund  as  genitive  object  is  pretty  common :  ondred  to  faranne,  dreaded  to  go 
(Matt.,  ii,  22) ;  wished  to  see  (siii,  17.)    Other  objects  occur,  5  44S,  2). 

454. — IV.  Adverbial,  l.  The  gerund  is  used  to  denote 
the  purpose  of  motion. 

Ut  eudc  se  siidcrc  to  sdpenne.,  the  sower  went  out  to  sow  (Mc,  4,  3) ;  so 
often    without  to:  gretan   eoc/e,  went  to   greet   (C,  140,  31);  gepat 
neosean,  went  to  see  (B.,  115) ;  sende  bodian,  sent  to  preach  (Bed.,  3, 
22). 
(a.)  The  Latin  supine  in  -uvi  (Hark.,  509). 

2,  The  gerund  "vvith  an  adjective  may  express  an  act  for 
which  any  thing  is  ready. 

Hrade  Mud  to  ageotanne,  ready  to  shed  blood  (Psa.,  xiii,  6)  ;  fUse  to 
farennc,  ready  to  go  (B.,  1805);  so  gearu,  rcope,  spid,  etc  Compare 
hi},  pxre  pu  dyrstig  ofstician  bar,  how  could  you  be  daring  (=how 
flared  you)  stab  a  boar?  (yElfrc),  ^  448,  2;  gearpe  gehyran,  Tca.(iy  to 
hear  (yElfrc). 

(o.)  Latin  supine  in  -w,  and  infinitive  (Hark.,  §§  570,  552,  3). 

3.  The  gerund  with  an  adjective  may  express  an  act  in 
respect  to  which  any  thing  is  2jleasa}it,  U7i])leascmt,  easy^  icorthy., 
§§  321,302. 


200  rAirncH'LES. 

Gladu  on  to  Wctenne,  pleasant  to  look  on  (Boet.,G) ;  grimlic  to  geseonnc, 
grisly  to  see  (Ex.,  57, 15) ;  cde  on  to  findannc,  easy  to  find  (Psa.,lxxvi, 
16)  ;  pyrdc  to  dhbtcnne.,  worthy  to  receive  pardon  (C,  0:22;  Matt.,  iii, 
11). 
(a.)  The  Latin  supine  in  -u,  for  whicli  often  an  infinitive  (Uark.,  570). 


PARTICIPLES. 
455,  The  Helation  of  the  JForms. 

1.  The  -nd  of  the  present  denotes  continuance;  the  -en,  -d  of  the  past 
denote  completion.  The  completed  acts  are  naturally  used  to  describe  the 
things  completed,  i.  e.,  are  passive. 

(a.)  A  few  past  participles  are  active,  druncen,  forsporen,  gesprecen, 
etc.  :  bed7-e  druncen,  drunken  with  beer  (B.,  531,  and  often) ;  forsporen, 
forsworn,  perjured  (Gen.,  xxiv,  8,  and  elsewhere)  ;  heom  pus  gesprecenum, 
they  thus  having  spoken  (Nic,  27,  and  elsewhere)  ;  gclyfed  folc,  people 
having  believed  (Horn.,  1,  144)  ;  so  Gothic  (Mc,  xv,  28),  Lat.  potus,jicra- 
tus,  etc. 

(2.)  The  participles  have  (1)  adjective  endings,  and  agree  with  nouns ;  but  the  dif- 
ference Is  so  slight  between  an  act  asserted  as  done  by  the  agent,  and  as  descriptive  of  the 
agent,  that  the  participles  are  used  (2)  like  infinitives,  and  (3)  as  abridged  clauses. 
The  two  last  uses  are  less  common  in  Anglo-Saxon  than  in  Latin  or  Greek  (Ilarkness,  571- 
581 ;  Hadley,  785-S06). 

(3.)  Weak  and  strong  forms,  see  5§  362, 119,  b. 

The  Combinations. 

456.  A  participle  agrees  with  its  substantive  ia  gender, 
number^  and  case,  §  361. 
A  participle  may  govern  the  case  of  its  verb. 

I.  Attributive  :  man  rihtpis  and  ondrMende  God,  a  man  righteous  and 
fearing  God  (Horn.,  3,  446)  ;  seo  foresMe  boc,  the  aforesaid  book  (Horn., 
2,118). 

(a.)  Abridged.— Here  belong  many  abridged  clauses,  ^  281  :  onlyht 
xlcne  man  cumendne  to  pysum  middanearde, Yighteth  every  man  comin<r 
(who  comes)  to  this  world  (W.  P.  T.,  4). 

{b)  Subject  omitted  : — persons  :  ealrd  libbendrd  mbdor,  mother  of  all 
living  (Gen.,  iii,  20) ;  Godes  gecorcnan,  God's  chosen  (Horn.,  2,  454) ; — 
things  :  frumrlpan  gongcndes  and  peaxendes,  first  fruits  of  that  going  and 
growing  (LL.  ^If.,  38). 

(c.)  Compounds  with  un-  abound  in  the  Teutonic  tongues. 

457. — II.  Predicative  :  ic  secgende  pws,l  was  saying  (An.,  951) ;  pies 
first  dgdn,  the  time  was  gone  (An.,  147)  ;  ft  sint  gebundenc,  feet  are 


VERBALS.  201 

bound  (C,  24,  18) ;  paldend  licgad  dredme  hedrorene,  the  powerful  lie  be- 
reft  of  joy  (Ex.,  291,  8). 

(a.)  Hence  the  progressive  forms,  §§  177, 411 ;  the  perfect  of  iutransitives,  5§  16S,  41G ;  the 
passives,  §5  17S,  409. 

458. — III.  Objective:  (1.)  direct  object  after  verbs  o^ beginning  and 
ending:  geendude  bebeodende,  he  stopped  giving  commands  (Matt.,  xi,  1)., 

(3.)  Definitive  after  verbs  of  motion  :  com  ridendc,  came  riding  (Horn., 
2,  134)  ;  com  gangende  (Matt.,  xiv,  25,  and  often) ;  cporn  gefered  (Sal., 
178  ;  perhaps  never  exactly  the  Germ,  kam  gegangen)  ;  pind  pedende  fxrcd, 
(El.,  1274) ;  purhpunedon  dcsicnde, ihey  continued  asking  (John,  viii,  7). 

(3.)  Genitive  object  after  verbs  of  emotion :  ondredon  hme  acsigendc, 
dreaded  asking  him,  i<po(iovvro  sTrspwrJ/crat  (Mc,  ix,  32)  ;  pundredon  geseonde 
dumbe  specende,  ihey  wondered  to  see  the  dumb  speaking  (Matt.,  xv,  31). 

(4.)  Final  object  after  verbs  of  cognition :  hine  geseah  sittendne,  saw 
him  sitting  (Luc.,xxii,  56)  ;  geseah  his  hus  dfylled,  saw  his  house  filled  (St. 
G.,  6) ;  gehyrdon  hine  specende,  heard  him  speaking  (John,  i,  37). 

(5.)  Final  after  having :  he  hwfde  hine  geporhtne,  he  had  him  wrouglit 
(C,  17,4).     Hence  the  perfect  in  Teutonic,  Romanic,  Romaic,  rare  Gr.,  Lat. 

(a.)  These  correspond  with  infinitives,  55  44S,  449,  453. 

459. — IV.  Adverbial.  (1.)  Time:  he  pmccende  geseah,  he,  when  he 
waked,  saw  (St.  G.,  4)  ;  nolde,  gcladod,  sldian,  he  would  not,  when  invited, 
go  (Horn.,  1,  128). 

(2.)  Cause:  dyde  &gder  to  dnum,  topurpcnde  feondscipds,  made  both  at 
one  by  abolishing  enmities  (Hom.,  1, 106). 

(3.)  Concession  :  syllait,  nan  ping  gehyhtcnde,  lend,  though  hoping 
nothing  (Luc,  vi,  35). 

(4.)  Co-existence  :  gccyrdon  pa  hyrdds  puldrigende  and  herigcnde  God, 
the  shepherds  returned,  glorifying  and  praising  God  (Horn.,  1,  32). 

(a.)  Such  constrnctions  are  often  abridged  clauses,  5  2S1. 
(6.)  For  the  absolute  construction,  see  55  304,  d;  295,  6. 

Vekcals. 

4G0.  1.  The  Anglo-Saxon  verbal  in  -ung,  -ing  (^  233),  is  a  true  noun, 
e.  g.,  governed  by  a  preposition  :  ic  pxs  on  /m?Ji!wn^e>Engl.  I  was  a  hunt- 
ing (.Elfc). 

2.  The  gerund  in  -ende  (^  445,  2)  changed  to  -ing  (Layamon,  2047), 
and  hence  the  old  English  use  of  the  form  in  -mg  as  a  verb :  /  am  to  ac- 
cusinge  you  (John,  v,  45,  Wycliffe,  Oxford  edition). 

3.  The  present  participle  in  -ende  changed  to  -ing;  and,  in  English, 
noun,  participle,  adjective,  and  infinitive  (gerund)  mix. 


202       INTEKJECTIUNS.— CONJUNCTIONS.— COPULATIVES. 


INTERJECTIONS,^  263. 

401.  The  interjection  has  the  syntax  of  a  clause,  §  278,  f?. 

(a.)  Compare  vocative,  i^  289,  d ;  answers,  ^  399. 

(i.)  For  the  dative  after  so-called  interjections,  see  i^*  298,  b. 


CONJUNCTIONS,^  262. 

Co-ordinate  Conjunctions. 

4G2.  Co-ordinate  conjunctions  connect  sentences  and 
like  parts  of  a  sentence. 

46  3.  Copulatives. 

1.  And  connects  like  clauses;  cum  and  geseoh,  come  and  see  (John, 
i,  10) ;  words,  often  an  emphatic  repetition  :  litlan  and  litlan,  by  littles 
and  littles  (Chr.,  1110)  ;  sp'utur  and  spidor,  worse  and  worse  (Chr.,  1080)  ; — 
correlatives  :  fcor  and  nedh,  far  and  nigh  (C,  177,  27). 

It  is  a  general  sign  of  connected  discourse  ; — introductory  to  a  sentence  : 
And  ne  forseoh  pii  cr/rliscne  man,  (Hail  to  thee,  Apollonius).  And  do  not 
neglect  a  plain  man  (Ap.,  7) ;  so  Shakespeare,  "Yet  ask."  "And  shall  I 
havef*  (Rich.  II.,  iv,  1)  ;  and  often  beginning  a  lyric,  Southey,  Moore ;  so 
in  German,  Goethe. 

Strengthened  :  sunu  and  fxder  li'gder,  son  and  father  both  (Hy.,7, 42)  ; 
aJid  butu,  and  both  (Ex.,  125,  8) ;  and  edc,  and  also  (Chr.,  894)  ;  and  eac 
spa  (896)  ;  a7id  edc  spa  ilce  (same),  and  also  (Psa.,  xxx,  10;  El.,  1278); 
and  ealspd,  and  likewise  (Luc,  v,  33) ;  and  samod,  and  together  (C,  456) ; 
and  sodUce,  and  verily  (Matt.,  ii,  9) ;  ajid  to,  (nine  hundred),  and  (seventy) 
too  (C,  1224). 

Correlative:  and  ....  a7id,hoth  ....  and  (John,  xii,  28)  ;  so  Wycliffe, 
Mc,  ix,  21,  and  often). 

legdcr  (gc)  ....  aiid  (edc)  both  ....  and  (By.,  224)  ;  bu  {batpd)  .... 
and,  both  ....  and  (Ex.,  64,  12). 

ge  .  .  .  .  and,  both  ....  and  (C,  40,  31) ;  samod  ....  and,  both  .... 
and  (C.  239,  27). 

(a.)  As  a  general  connective,  and  may  connect  clauses  having  various 
logical  relations,  and  with  or  without  other  specific  conjunctions. 

Adversative  :  God  geseah  pone  deofol,  and  se  deofol  spd-pedh  pxs 
bcdihled  Godes  gesihdc,  God  saw  the  devil,  and  the  devil  though  was 
deprived  of  the  sight  of  God  (Hom.,  2,  448)  ;  and  nd  pe  Ixs,  and  never- 
theless (Chr.,  1011) ;  ic  pylle  7nild-hcortnysse,  and  nd  onswgdnyssc, 
I  wish  mercy,  and  not  sacrifice  (Matt.,  xii,  7) ;  so  beginning  a  sentence 


COPULATIVES.  203 

to  enforce  a  contrast :  And  do  you  now  put  on  your  lest  attire?  (Shake- 
speare, J.  C,  i,  1). 
Causal:  gclyf,  and  heo  bid  hal,  believe,  and  she  shall  be  whole  (Luc, 

viii,  50) ;  and  for  pon  nc,  and  not  for  that  (Deut.,  i,  32). 
Distributive  :  ipani  and  tpdm,  by  two  and  two  (Mc.,  vi,  7).  See  ^  392. 
{b.)  And  is  often  an  emphatic  particle  (Gr.  Kal)  :  sc  pe  nwfd,  and  pxt 
Pe  he  hxfit,  him  but  wtbrodcn,  whosoever  hath  not,  even  that  which  he  hath, 
from  him  shall  be  taken  away  (Matt.,  xiii,  12) ;  And  pu  pxre  mid  pam  Gali- 
leiscean,  thou  also  wast  with  the  Galilean  (Matt.,  xxvi,  69) ;  so  in  Wycliffe  : 
Go  and  yee,  go  ye  also  (Matt.,  xx,  4,  and  often) ;  not  in  use  now. 

2.  Bu,  correlative  with  and;  which  see. 

3.  Eac,  ec,  eke  ; — with  like  clauses  :  eordan  porhtc,lifedc  gesccop,  God 
earth  wrought,  life  also  created  (B.,  97).  It  is  also  used  as  an  emphatic 
particle  alone,  and  with  and,  ge,  hpxdre,  ne,  odde,  spa,  spilce,Jje(ih. 

Eal  spa,  see  spa. 

Eornostlice,  see  sodltce,  §  463, 8. 

4.  Ge  ; — with  like  clauses  :  s&  hrsec  ge  steorran  forleton,  the  sea  broke, 
and  the  stars  ceased  their  light  (Ex.,  70,  33,  rare) ; — words :  calde  ge 
geonge,  old  and  young  (Jud.,  166). 

Strengthened  :  lEghpxdcr  ge,  both  (^ds.  LL.,  1)  ;  butu  ge,  both  (C,  46, 
30)  ;  ge  edc,  and  also  (Cri.,  1170);  ge  edc  spa  same,  and  also  likewise 
(Met.,  11, 10) ;  somod  gc,  at  once  both  (Bed.,  2,  9) ;  ge  spylce,  and  so  also 
(B.,  22.58). 

Correlative:  ge  .  .  .  ge,  both  .  .  .  and  (B.,  1864) ;  wgdcr  ge  .  .  .  ge, 
both  .  .  .  and  (Joh.,  XV,  24) ;  ge  .  .  .  and,  both  .  .  .  and  (C,  752),  see  a7id. 

5.  Gelice,  likewise  ; — he  pundrdde,  and  ealle  ;  gelice  lacobum,  i.  e.  laco- 
bus,  he  wondered,  and  all  (that  were  with  him) ;  likewise  James  (Luc,  v,  9). 

6.  Ne,  ne,  with  like  clauses  :  beorgds  pxr  ne  muntds  stedpe  ne  stondad, 
there  hills  nor  mountains  steep  stand  (Ex.,  199,  6) ; — general  connective  : 
Ne  ne  eton  ge,  neither  do  you  eat  (Exod.,  xii,  8). 

Correlative :  ne  .  .  .  nc,  not  .  .  .  nor  (Gu.,  670). 
ndder  ne  .  .  .  7ie  (ne),  neither  .  ,  .  nor  (Levit.,  iii,  17;  Psa.,xxxiv,  12). 
nddor  .  .  .  ?je,  neither  .  .  .  nor  (Matt.,  vi,  20)  .  .  .  nor  (repeated). 
ne  .  .  .  ne  edc  ne,  not  .  .  .  nor  (also  not)  (Boet.,  16,  1). 
nd  (jialxs)  pxt  an  .  .  .  ac  eac  spylce  (spa)  ;  and  nalxs  pxt  an  J)xt  him 
pa  fugelds,  ac  edc  spa  pa  fix  as,  and  not  only  that  the  birds  (were  sub- 
ject) to  him,  but  also  the  fishes  (St.  G.,  9) ;  so  Goth.,  ni  pat  ain  .  .  .  ac 
jah  (I  Tim.,  v,  13). 

Strengthenings,  see  ^  400.     Note  piston  and  nc  pendon,  knew  (not)  and 
hoped  not  (that  they  should  see)  (B.,  1004). 

7.  Sam :  bid  oferfroren,  sam  hit  sy  sumor  sum  pinter,  is  frozen  over 
both  when  it  is  summer  and  winter  (Oros.,  1,  1,23),  compare  ^  464,  5;  spa 
same  spa,  see  after,  spa. 

Samod,  sec  and. 

8.  Sodlice ; — general  sign  of  connected  discourse :   Sodltce  Philippus 


204  DISJUNCTIVES.— AD  VEllSATIVES. 

jtj.YS,  Now  Philip  was  (from  Bethsaida)  (Jolin,  i,  4-1),  sec  under  and;  simi- 
lar are  cornostUce  (Matt.,  ii,  1)  ;  pitodlice  (iii,  11). 

9.  S]ia,  correlative :  sprecan  spa  yfcl  spa  god,  to  speak  as  well  evil  as 
good  (Nic.,6)  ;  for  other  uses  of  spa,  see  ^  473  ;  spa  same  spa,  beasts  have 
these  natures  the  same  as  men  (Boet.,  33,  4) ;  eal  spa,  also  (Matt.,  xxi, 
30). 

10.  To,  sec  under  and ;  ])itodlice,  sec  sudllcc. 

40  4,  Disjunctives,  §  26  2. 

1.  Aj)tter,  adcr,  strengthens  odde,  which,  see. 

2.  Elles :  hcgymad;  dies  nxbbe  ge  meJc,  take  heed;  else  ye  have  no 
reward  (Matt.,vi,  1).  ^  2Q2,b. 

3.  Hpaeder  :  correlative  with/e  and  oddc,  which  see.     See  also  ^  397. 

4.  Odde ; — alternative  clauses  :  hi  ne  mihton,  odde  hi  noldon,  they 
could  not,  or  they  would  not  (Chr.,  1052)  ; — -words  :  fear  odde  neah, 
far  or  nigh  (C,  1029  ;  B.,  2870). 

Strengthened  :  dder  odde  on  boclande  odde  on  folclande,  either  on  book- 
land  or  on  folkland  (LL.  Edvv.,  1,  2) ;  odde  cue,  or  also  (Psa.,  cxvii,  12) ; 
odde  hpxder  (Gen.,  xliii,  27). 
Correlatives:  odite  .  .  .  odde,  either  .  .  .  or ;  odde  gcmetan,  odde  getellan, 
odde  dpegan,  either  measure,  or  count,  or  weigh  (LL.  .^(ts.,  1) ; 
adcr    .  .  .  odde,  either  ...  or  (Hy.,  10,  42) ; 
hpxder  .  .  .  oddc,  whether  ...  or  (Num.,  xiii,  20)  ; 
hpxder  .  .  .  odde  hpxder,  wheiher  .  .  .  or  whether  (Gen.,xliii,  27) ; 
oder  tpegd  .  .  .  odde,  other  of  two  (=:either)  ...  or  (By.,  208). 

5.  Sam:  satn  pe  pillan,  sam  pe  nyllan,  whether  we  will  or  nill  (Boet., 
34, 12). 

G.  |:)e,  or  ; — alternative  clauses  :  is  hit  dlyfed  pe  nd,  is  it  lawful  or  no  ? 
(Matt.,  xxii,  17)  ;^words  :  plfhddes  pe  peres,  of  female  or  male  (Ph., 
357). 

Strengthened  :  geh&lan  hpxder  pe  forspillan,  to  heal  (whether)  or  to  de- 
stroy (Mc,  iii,  4). 

Correlatives:  pe  .  .  .  /e, whether  ...  or  (Mc,  xiii,  35)  :  hpxder  .  .  .  pe 
(Ex.,  95,  8);  hpxder  pe  .  .  .  pe  (Matt,  xxiii,  17) ;  hpxder  .  .  .  hpxder 
/e,  whether  ...  or  whether  (Joh.,vii,  17). 

46  5.  Adversative s,  §  26  2. 

1.  Ac,  ach,  ah,  but ; — contrasted  clauses  :  nis  pis  mxden  dead,  ac  hcu 
slxpdip)  (Mc.,v,39). 

Strengthened:  ac  spidor, hut  rather  (Ap.,20);  ac  nddemd,  hut  none  the 
more  (Chr.,  1127) ;  ac  pedh  hpxdere,  but  however  (Horn.,  1,  276). 

2.  Butan,  see  ^  431,  </. 

3.  Git,  yet,  correlative  with  concessive  pedh  is  not  yet  found  in  Anglo- 
Saxon. 


CAUSAL.— ILLATIVE.— SUBORDINATE  COXJUXCTIONS.    205 

4.  Ono  hpxt,  hut  yet  (Bed.,  3,  24,  Smith's  ed.). 

5.  })eah,  yet ; — contrasted  clauses  :  lir  ne  ciaton ;  peak  hie  fela  piston, 
they  did  not  know  before  ;  yet  they  knew  many  things  (C,  179, 16). 

Strengthened:  and  ne  code  peak  tn, and  (=:but)  he  did  not  go  in  though 
(John,  XX,  5)  ;  and  spa  pedh,  Goth,  sve  pauh,  and  yet  even  so  (Horn.,  2, 
448)  ;  e77in  spa  pcdh  (Met.,  9, 38) ;  spa  pedh  hpxdere,  yet  however  (Psa., 
cxviii,  157);  spd'^se  (Gu.,  934,  and  often) ;  ac  pedh  hpxitere,see  ac. 
Correlative  oftenest  with  a  concessive  although. 

pedh  (pe)  .  .  .  pedh,  although  ...  yet  (Boet.,  IG,  3). 
spa  .  .  .  spa  pedh,  although  .  .  .  yet  (El.,  498). 

6.  And  na  ])e  laes  (Chr.,  1011) ;  ac  nd  pe  md  (Chr.,  1127), nevertheless; 
for  pon,  notwithstanding  (Deut.,  i,  32). 

4  6  6.  Causal. — Illative. 

1.  Nu,  now  tliat,  since  ; — causal :  pu  me  ne  forpyrne,  nu  ic  pus  fcorran 
com,  (I  pray)  that  thou  wilt  not  deny  me,  since  I  thus  far  have  come 
(B.,  430)  ;  nu  pe,  since  that  (An.,  485). 

2.  \)a.,  since  (causal)  ;  pa  hie  ofgifen  hxfde,  (now  he  could  replenish  the 
earth)  since  they  had  given  it  up  (C,  96),  see  ^  252,  IL 

3.  Be  ])am  J)e,  by  this  that ;  because :  ongist  pu  hi  be  pam  pe  heo  on 
nihte  seined,  thou  mayst  know  it  because  it  shineth  in  the  night 
(Mandr.). 

4.  For  Jjam  ]je  {pamy-pan,  pon),  causal:  for  pam  pe  Drihlcn  behet 
god,  we  will  do  thee  good, /or  this  that  (=:because)  the  Lord  has 
promised  good  (Num.,  x,  29). 

For  l)am  (causal)  :  because  (Boet.,  19) ; — illative  :  therefore  (C,  97). 

5.  bonne,  since  (causal)  :  hpd  sceal  tH  his  rice  fon,  Jwnne  he  broder 
nxft,  who  shall  to  his  throne  succeed,  since  he  has  no  brother  (or  chil- 
dren) (Horn.,  2,  146). 

6.  ])y,  therefore  (illative)  (C.,34,  21) ;  py  /;e,  because  (Chr.,  836). 
Correlative  ■  P'J  ■  ■  •  Py  l>e,  on  this  account  .  .  .  because  (Chr.,  836). 

7.  For  \,y  i/ii,pe) ; — causal  (John,  vii,  22). 

Correlative :  for  pi  .  .  .  for  pan  pe,  for  this  reason  .  .  .  because 
(Horn.,  1,288). 

SUBOKDIXATE     CoX.T  UNCTIONS. 

467,  A  subordinate  conjunction  connects  a  subordinate 

clause  and  the  word  Avith  whicli  it  combines,  §  278,  b. 

(a.)  Most  are  really  relative  adverbs,  or  adverbial  phrases  modifying  a  word  in  the  prin- 
cipal and  another  in  the  subordinate  clause. 

(6.)  The  same  word  or  phrase  may  denote  different  logical  relations  between  different 
pairs  of  phrases,  but  we  will  follow  our  usual  analysis  of  the  subordinate  clauses,  §  2S3. 


20G  ISUBSTANTIVE  CLAUSES— DECLARATIVE  CONJUNCTIONS. 

A.  Substantive  Clauses. 
4G 8.  Declarative   Conjunctions. 

1.  \)3it,  substantive  sign  (the  article  of  a  clause). 

1.  With  a  subject  clause:  pan-  gecyded  peanl  pxl  God  helpe  gefrc- 
mcdc,  there  was  made  known  that  God  help  gave  (An.,  91); — cor- 
relative [nvt  or  hit :  nis  pxt  Jeor  hconon  pict  sc  mere  stondcd,  it  is 
not  far  hence  that  the  mere  stands  (B.,  13G2) ;  hit  gelamp  Jjxt  {hie) 
cpomon,\i  happened  that  they  came  (El.,  272); — quasi-appositive : 

pcdtdcen  pxt  hie  gesohton,  the  fatal  sign   (was  spread)  that  they 
should  seek  (his  death)  (An.,  1123). 

2.  AVith  an  object  clause  (a)  accusative:  ic  pat  Jjxt  pii  eart,l  know 
that  thou  art  (El.,  815)  ;-:— correlative  pxt  or  hit:  pxt  gecyded 
mxnig  pxt  pxt  gepeorded,  that  the  multitude  shall  show  that  it  shall 
happen  (An.,  1439) ; — apposition :  Jm  peddxd  to  prAce  ne  settc, 
pxt  hie  herxddon,  he  would  not  avenge  the  wicked  deed^  that  they 
deprived  (of  life  the  guiltless)  (EL,  490). 

{h.)  Dative:  to  pam  arod, Jjxt  he  ncdde,  ready  for  this, that  he  ventured 
(Jud.,275). 

(c.)  Genitive:  gcmyndig  Jjxt  hid  gesohte,  mindful  that  she  sought  (El., 
268) ; — correlative  pxs :  pe  Jjxs  sculon  hycgan,  Jjxt  pe,  we  should  strive  for 
this,  that  we,  etc.  (C,  398)  ;— appositive  :  crxftes,  pxt  ]m  me  getxhte,  I 
would  ask  knowledge,  i\\?ii  thou  teach  me  (An.,  485). 

((/.)  ]3aet  is  also  used  in  final  clauses,  ^  433 ;  modal,  ^  473 ;  consecutive, 
^  434  ;  to  introduce  a  wish  or  lamentation,  ^  421,  4. 

The  uses  of  pxt  correspond  with  those  of  Goth.  ])atei.,  O.  H.  Ger.  daz, 
and  generally  with  Lat.  ut,  quod,  Gr.  on,  Cjq,  'iva,  and  ottojq,  Sa.nsk.jat,jdthd. 

2.  ])sette<ipxt  pe  has  the  same  uses  as  pxt;  for  examples,  see  Grein. 

3.  Itset  is,  introduces  an  explanatory  clause :  ongunnon  hi  pxt  apostolice 
lif  onhyrigean,  pxt  is,  on  siiigalum  gebedum  Driht7ie  pjeopdon,  they  began, 
to  imitate  the  apostolic  life,  that  is,  they  served  the  Lord  in  continual  pray- 
ers (Bed.,  1,  26) ;  mid  fcdpiim  hrodrum,  pxt  is,  scofenum  odde  eahtum,  (he 
lived)  with  few  brothers,  that  is,  seven  or  eight  (Bed.,  4,  3). 

Nemlice  is  given  by  Koch  and  Thorpe  for  Lat.  videlicet,  like  English 
namely;  but  it  does  not  occur  in  the  passages  cited  by  them.  ^Ifric 
translates  videlicet  hy  pitodl ice,  Gram.,  p.  40. 

4.  Hu,  how,  object  of  cognition  :  pe  gehyrdon  h{i  gS  ofslogon„\\G  heard 
how  (that)  ye  slew  (two  king.s)  (Jos.,  ii,  10)  ;  gesdpon  hu  he  pxs  astigende, 
we  saw  how  (that)  he  ascended  into  heaven  (Nic,  18),  frequent. 

Prepositions  sometimes  govern  clauses  :  stod  ofer  p&r  pxt  cild  pxs,  stood 
over  where  the  child  was  (Matt.,  ii,  9). 


ADJECTIVE  CLAUSES— ADVERBIAL  CLAUSES.  207 

1      4G9.  Interrogative  Conjunctions. 

L  Hpaeder:  hefran  hpxdcr  folc  Crislen  p&re,  asked  whether  the  people 
were  Christian  (Horn.,  2,  120). 

2.  Gif :  frwgn  gif  him  pxre,  asked  if  to  him  were  (B.,  1319). 

3.  Similar  is  the  use  of  Iipanon,  whence,  hpier,  where;  hpsenne,  when; 
hpider,  whither ;  hu,  how,  and  the  like,  see  ^  397-8. 

4.  For  lie,  ac,  ah,  hu,  Id,  as  strengthening  particles,  see  ^  397. 


470. — B.  Adjective  Clauses. 

These  are  connected  to  their  substantive, 

1.  By  relative  pronouns,  i^i^  379-385,  427. 

2.  By  relative  adverbs,  ^  398,  2. 

(a.)  Adverbs  of  place  connect  to  names  of  places ;  of  time,  to  names  of 
time,  etc. ;  on  sumum  dxge,  pa  pa  Godcs  englds  comon,  on  a  day  when 
God's  angels  came  (Hem.,  2,  440). 

C.  Adverbial  Clauses. 

471. — I.  Place. — The  connectives  are  relative  adverbs  :  pxr,  where 
(^  428);  px-r  p&r,  North,  sua  /me?-,  wherever  (John,  xii,  26) ;  ne  mxge  gc 
cuman  pyder  ic  fare,  ye  can  not  come  whither  I  go  (John,  viii,  21) ;  huer, 
where  (North.,Matt.,  vi,  21)  ;  spa  hpdr  .<r/^«,  wherever  (^  428);  spa  hpider 
spd,  whithersoever  (^  428). 

Correlative /cgr  .  .  .  p&r  (Matt.,  vi,  21). 

472. — n.  Time.  1.  Adverbial  conjunctives  mentioned  under  the  sub- 
junctive, §  429:  ^r  ]jon  pxt  (John,  iv,  49,  North.),  xr  pon  pe  (Jud.,252), 
ier  Jjon  (C,  2,  20),  xr,  before  (B.,  G76)  ;  d:r  .  .  .  ihr  (B.,  1370) ;— oct  pxt, 
od,  till  (^  429,  a)  •,—ponne,  hponnc,  penden,  spa  lange  spd,  pa  hpile  pd 
(^  429,  h). 

2.  Others  with  prepositions :  asfter  pam  pe  ic  arise,  ic  cume,  after  I  arise 
I  will  come  (Mc,  .\iv,  28) ;  mid  pam  pe  (Horn.,  2,  13G),  mid  py  pe  (Matt., 
xxvii,  12),  mid  py,  whilst  (Bed.,  1, 1)  ■,—oi pon,  since  (Mc,  ix.  20,  North.) ; 
— on-mang  {dmang)  pam  pe  he  pxr  ;w5,  while  he  was  there  (Chr.,  1091), 
on  pam  pe,  wiiile  (Chr.,  1050)  ; — si(t  pan,  since  (B.,  656),  as  soon  as  (604), 
after  that  (106)  ;  siddon  pait  (Chr.,  1128)  ;— to  pon  pxt,  until  (B.,  2591). 

3.  Without  prepositions, — pronominal:  })a,  when  (B,,G32);  pd  .  .  .  pd 
(Matt.,  ii,  3),  pd  pd  .  .  .  pd  (Matt,,  iv,  2),  pa  pe  .  .  .  pd  (Chr.,  1013), 
when  .  .  .  tlicn  ; — mid  pam  pe.  .  .  .  pd  (Hom.,  2,  450),  mid  py  pe  .  .  .  pd 
(Ap.,  5),  on  pam  pe  .  .  .  pd  (Chr.,  1049),  dmang  pam  pe  .  .  .  pd  (Nic,  15), 
whilst  .  .  .  then;  on  sumum  dxge  .  .  .  pd,  on  a  day  .  .  .  then  (Horn.,  2. 
446);  sona  pxs  pe  .  .  .  pd,  as  soon  after  as  .  .  .  then  (Bed.,  1,  12) ; — ])ass 
pe,  after  that  (Bed.,  1, 11); — nu  (with  causal  shade),  now  that  (Sat.,  387) ; 
nu  .  .  .  WW,  now  .  .  .  since  (C,,403). 


208       ADVEKBLAX  CLAUSES.— CONJUNCTIONS  OMITTED, 

4.  From  nouns:  hpilum  {-on,  -an)  .  .  .  hp'diim  (Ex.,  15G,  30ji,  hpile 
.  .  .  hp'ile  (Ily.,  3,  41,  45),  sometimes  .  .  .  sometimes  ;  /*«  ItpUc  pc  .  .  .  pd 
/i/^/Ze,  while  .  .  .  then  (Oros.,  2,  4,  5) ; — sona  spa  .  .  .  spa,  as  soon  as  .  .  . 
so  soon  (Bed.,  I,  1);  sona  pxs  pe  .  .  .  pd,:\.s  soon  (after)  as  .  .  .  then  (Bed., 
1,  12). 

473. — III.  Manner  :  esfter  pam  pc,  after  the  manner  that  (Luc.,  ii,  24) ; 
— eal  spa,  see  spa; — on  efn,  efcn  .sy^a,  likewise  (Ps.,  138,  G)  ; — gelice  : 
elpendes  hyd  pyle  drincan  pxtan  gelice  and  spinge  ded,  elephant's  hide 
will  soak  up  water  like  (as)  a  sponge  doth  (Oros.,  5,  7,  2) ;  spylce  gelice  and 
seo  p&re,  such  as  if  she  were  (Oros.,  2,  4,  6) ; — hu,  see  §  468,  4  ; — spa: 
head gledpe  spa  msddran,  be  wise  as  serpents  (Matt.,  x,  16) ;  spa  spa,  so  as 
(Horn.,  2,  452) ;  gelicost  spa,  most  as  if  (Ex.,  53,  15)  ;  eal  spa,  wholly  as 
(^Ifrc.);  spa  .  .  .pa,  as  soon  as  .  .  .  then  (Ex.,  200,  16) ;  spa  spa  .  .  . 
spa,  as  ...  so  (Horn.,  2,  450).  Before  and  after  an  adjective  or  adverb : 
spa  fela  spa,  so  many  as  (^^Ifrc.)  ;  spa  lange  spa,  so  long  as  (Mc,  ii,  19) ; 
spa  same  spa,  just  as  (Oros.,  2,  4,  8)  ;  etc.  Interrogatives  :  spa  hp&r  spa, 
(to  such  place  as) = wheresoever  (Matt.,  xxiv,  28) ; — with  comparatives  :  spa 
he  hyd  yldrd,  spa  he  fxgerra  hyd,  as  it  becomes  older,  so  it  becomes  fairer 
(Bed.,  1, 1) ;— spilce,  as  if  (^  430). 

(a.)  Intensity  :  {to)  pxs  pwt,  to  such  a  degree  that  (Bed.,  4,  28)  ;  {to)  pees 
pe,  so  far  as  (B.,  2410, 1350) ;  Jyy  ■  ■  •  py :  hid  Jry  heardra,  pe  sp'idbr  bedtad, 
it  becomes  the  harder,  the  stronger  they  beat  against  it  (C,  80,  8), 

{b.)  Comparison:  ponne  :  seo  sdpul  is  md  ponne  se  lichama,i\\G  soul  is 
more  than  the  body  (Luc,  xii,  23). 

(c.)  Consecutive  :  spa,  §  430,  h ;  Jjxt ;  spa  pwt,  §  434. 

474.— IV.  Causal,  §466. 

475. — V.  Conditional :  gif,  on  l)xt  gerdd,  pid  piam  pe,  and  the  nega- 
tive huton,  nefne,  nemne,  nymde,  hutan  J)xnne,  butan  jid,  are  illustrated  in 
§  431 ; — pxr,  if  (C,  797) ;  se  pe  pille,  whoever  will,  spa  hpd  spa,  who- 
ever, see  hypothetical  relatives,  §  427) ; — nxre  pxt,  if  it  were  not  that  (Chr., 
943) ;  ono  nu,  if  now  (Bed.,  1,  27) ;  ono  gif,  same;  compare  gelice  and, 
§  473,  III ;  an  and  and  for  if  occur  in  Layamon,  and  are  common  in  old 
English. 

476. — VI.  Concessive  :  })edh,  though,  see  §  432  ;  spa  :  forgif  us  gyltds, 
spa  pe  pid  pe  oft  dbylgead,  forgive  us  our  debts,  though  we  against  thee  often 
sm(Hy.,6,22). 

477. — VII.  Final :  pxt,  and  the  negative  py  Ixs  pe,  see  §  433  ;  to  Pam 
pxt,  to  the  end  that  (John,  i,  31). 

Conjunctions  Omitted. 

478.  Copulatives  are  often  omitted. 

1.  Where  clauses  are  numbered  by  adverbs  :  first  .  .  .  secondly,  etc. 

2.  Where  recurring  words  mark  the  related  clauses :  edld,  pxt  ic  earn 
ealles  leas  .  .  .,  pxt  ic  ne  mxg  gersecan,  Alas,  that  7  am  of  all  bereft 


i'iii:sCIPAL  KULES  OF  SYNTAX.  209 

thai  /may  not  reach  (heaven)  (C,  275,  7)  ;  singad,  singact,  sing,  sing 
(Psa.,  xlvi,  6) ;  not  so  common  as  in  English. 

3.  Between  circumstances  closely  related,  especially  a  climax :  lie  is 
mxgnd  sped,  heafod  ealrd  heahgesceaftd,fred  xlmihtig,  he  is  of  power 
the  essence,  head  of  all  high  creatures,  Lord  Almighty  (C.,3). 

4.  Between  antithetic  clauses  or  words  :  pudu  beer  sunu,fieder  fyr,  wood 
the  son  bore,  the  father  fire  (C,  2887). 

(a.)  Sometimes  they  are  omitted  from  part  only  of  a  row  of  copulates : 
fyr,forst,  hiegel,  and  sndp,  fire,  frost,  hail,  and  snow  (Ps.,  cxlviii,  8); — 
especially  between  sets  of  pairs  :  frige  and  peope,  nedele  and  unxdele,  free 
and  serf,  noble  and  unnoble  (Ap.,  12). 

479.  Disjunctives  are  seldom  omitted. 

Sometimes  between  sets  of  pairs :  gif  pind  cymd  pestan  odde  edsian, 
Sudan  octite  nordan,  if  wind  come  from  west  or  east,  (or)  from  south  or 
north  (C.,50,  10). 

480.  Adversatives  ave  often  omitted. 

Between  antithetic  clauses  or  words,  especially  between  a  positive  and 
negative  :  ne  gelyfe  pe  .  .  .  pe  sylfe  gehyrdon,  we  do  not  believe  (on 
your  report),  we  ourselves  heard  (John,  iv,42). 

481.  Causals  and  illatives  are  very  often  omitted,  John,  ii, 
25  ;  Gen.,  xi,  30. 


482.  PRINCIPAL  RULES  OF  SYNTAX. 

Substantives. 

Agreement. 

I.  A  predicate  noun  denoting  the  same  person  or  thing  as  its  subject, 
agrees  with  it  in  case^  §  286. 

II.  An  appositive  agrees  in  case  with  its  subject,  §  287. 

Nominative  Case. 

III.  The  subject  of  o,  finite  verb  is  put  in  the  nominative,  §  288. 

Vocative  Case. 

IV.  A  compellative  is  put  in  the  vocative,  §  289. 

Accusative  Case. 
Objective  Combinations, 

V.  The  direct  object  of  a  veri  is  put  in  tlie  accusative,  §  290. 

VI.  Impersonals  of  cppetlte  or  ^>asswtt  govern  an  accusative  of  the 
person  suffering,  §  290,  c. 

o 


210  PRINCIPAL  liULES  OF  SYNTAX. 

VII.  Some  verbs  of  asking  ami  teaching  may  have  two  accusatives, 
one  of  a  perso7i,  and  the  other  of  a  thmfj,  §  292. 

Quasi-predicative  Combinations. 

VIII.  The  subject  of  an  infinitive  is  put  in  the  accusative,  §  293. 

IX.  Some  verbs  of  making,  naming,  and  regarding  may  have  two 
accusatives  of  the  same  person  or  thing,  §  294. 

Adverb  ial  Combin  at  ions. 

X.  The  accusative  is  used  to  express  extent  of  time  and  sjpace  after 
verbs,  §  295. 

XI.  The  accusative  is  used  with  prepositions,  §  295,  c. 

Dative  and  Instrumental   Cases. 
Objective  Co?nbinations. 

XII.  An  object  of  influence  or  interest  is  put  in  the  dative,  §  297. 

XIII.  Verbs  of  granting,  refusing,  and  thanking  may  take  a  dative 
and  genitive,  §  297,  d. 

XIV.  Words  of  nearness  and  likeness  govern  the  dative,  §  299. 

XV.  The  instiTunental  or  dative  may  denote  an  oljject  of  mastery, 
§300. 

XVI.  Some  words  of  separation  may  take  an  object  from  which  in 
the  dative  or  instrumental,  §  301. 

Adverbial  Combinations. 

XVII.  The  instrumental  or  dative  may  denote  instrument,  means, 
manner,  or  cause,  §  302. 

XVII.  The  instrumental  or  dative  may  denote  price,  §  302,  c. 

XVIII.  The  instrumental  or  dative  may  denote  measure  of  differ- 
ence, §  302,  d. 

XIX.  The  instrumental  or  dative  may  denote  an  object  svj-orn  bv, 
§302,e. 

XX.  The  comparative  degree  may  govern  a  dative,  §  303. 

XXI.  The  dative  may  denote  time  when  or  place  where,  §  304. 

XXII.  A  substantive  and  participle  in  the  dative  may  make  an  ad- 
verbial clause  of  time,  cause,  or  co-existence,  §  304,  d. 

XXIII.  The  dative  with  a  preposition  may  denote  an  object  of  influ- 
ence or  interest,  association,  mastery,  or  separation ;  or  an  instrumental, 
ablative,  or  locative  adverbial  relation,  §  305.    Instrumental,  §§  306-308. 


PRINCIPAL  RULES  OF  SYNTAX.  211 

Genitive. 

Attributive  Combinations. 

XXIV.  An  attributive  genitive  may  denote  the  possessor  or  author 
of  its  subject,  §  310. 

XXV.  An  attributive  genitive  may  denote  tlie  subject  or  object  of 
a  verbal,  §  311. 

XXVI.  An  attributive  genitive  may  denote  the  whole  of  which  its 
subject  is  part,  §  312. 

XXVn.  An  attributive  genitive  may  denote  a  characteristic  of  its 
subject,  §  313. 

Predicative  Combinations. 
XXVin.  A  predicate  substantive  may  be  put  ia  the  genitive  to  de- 
note a  possessor  or  characteristic  of  the  subject,  or  the  whole  of 
which  it  is  part,  §  314. 

Objective  Combinations. 

XXIX.  The  genitive  may  denote  an  exciting  object,  §  815. 

XXX.  Verbs  of  asking,  accusing,  reminding,  may  take  an  accusative 
and  genitive,  §  315,  a. 

XXXI.  Verbs  of  granting,  refusing,  and  thanlsing  may  take  a  dative 
and  genitive,  §  315, 5. 

XXXn.  The  genitive  may  denote  an  object  affected  in  part,  §  316. 

XXXIII.  The  genitive  may  denote  an  object  of  separation,  §  317. 

XXXIV.  The  genitive  may  denote  an  object  of  supremacy  or  use, 
§318. 

XXXV.  The  genitive  or  instrumental  may  denote  the  material  of 
which  any  thing  is  made  or  full,  §  319. 

XXXVI.  The  genitive  in  combination  with  adjectives  may  denote 
measure,  §  320. 

XXXVII.  The  genitive  in  combination  with  adjectives  may  denote  the 
part  or  relation  in  which  the  quality  is  conceived,  §  321. 

Adverbial  Combinations. 

XXXVril.  The  genitive  may  denote  by  what  way,  §  322. 

XXXIX.  The  genitive  may  denote  time  when,  §  323. 

XL.  The  genitive  may  denote  means,  cause,  or  manner,  §§  324, 
325. 

XLI.  The  genitive  with  a  preposition  is  sometimes  used  to  denote  in- 
strumental, ablative,  or  locative  adverbial  relations,  §  326. 


212  PRINCIPAL  RULES  OF  SYNTAX. 

Peetositions. 
XLII.  A  preposition  governs  a  substantive,  aud  shows  its  relation 
to  some  otlicr  word  in  the  clause,  §  327. 

Adjectives. 

XLIII.  An  adjective  agrees  witli  its  substantive  in  gender,  number, 
and  case,  §  361. 

XLIV.  The  weak  forms  are  used  after  the  definite  article,  demon- 
stratives, and  possessives ;  and  often  in  attributive  wcatives,  instru- 
mentals,  and  genitives.    Comparative  forms  are  all  weak,  §  363. 

P  E  O  N  O  U  N  S. 

XLV.  A  substantive  pronoun  agrees  with  its  antecedent  in  gender, 
mirnber,  and  person,  §  305. 

A  D  V  E  E  B  S. 

XL VI.  Adverbs  modify  Terbs,  adjectives,  and  other  adverbs,  §  395. 

Verbs. 
Agreement. 
XLVII.  A  finite  verb  agrees  with  its  subject  in  number  and  person, 
§401. 

Voices. 

XLVin.  The  active  voice  is  used  to  make  the  agent  the  sid)ject  of 
predication,  §  408. 

XLIX.  The  passive  voice  is  used  to  make  the  direct  otgect  of  the  action 
the  subject  of  predication,  §  409. 

Te7ises. 

L.  Principal  tenses  depend  on  principal  tenses,  historical  on  histor- 
ical, §  419. 

Ifodes. 

LI.  The  indicative  is  used  in  assei'tions,  questions,  and  assumptions  to 
express  simple  predication,  §  420. 

LII.  The  subjunctive  is  used  to  express  mere  possibility,  doubt,  or 
wish,  §  421. 

LIII.  Tlie  subjunctive  may  be  used  by  attraction  in  clauses  subor- 
dinate to  a  subjunctive,  §  43fi. 


PRINCIPAL  RULES  OF  SYNTAX.  213 

LIV.  The  subjunctive  may  l)e  used  iu  a  substantive  clause  express- 
ing something  said,  asked,  thought,  wished,  or  done,  §  423. 

LV.  The  subjunctive  may  be  used  iu  indefinite  adjective  chiuses, 
§  437. 

,     LVI.  The  subjunctive  may  be  used  in  indefinite  adverbial  clauses 
of  place,  §  428. 

LVII.  The  subjunctive  may  be  used  in  adverbial  clauses  of  future  or 
indefinite  time,  §  429. 

LVni.  The  subjunctive  may  be  used  in  clauses  of  comparison  ex- 
pressing that  which  is  imagined  or  indefinite,  or  descriptive  of  a/tf;r<?. 

LIX.  The  subjunctive  is  used  in  a  protasis  when  proposed  as  pos- 
sible, the  imperfect  when  assumed  as  laireal,  §  431. 

LX.  The  subjunctive  may  be  used  in  a  concessive  clause,  §  432. 

LXI.  The  subjunctive  is  used  in  clauses  expressing  purpose,  §  433. 

LXII.  The  subjunctive  may  express  a  result,  §  434. 

LXIII.  The  potential  expresses  power,  liberty,  permission,  necessity, 
or  duty,  §  435. 

LXIV.  The  imperative  is  used  iu  commands,  §  444. 

XLV.  The  infinitive  is  construed  as  a  neuter  noun,  §  446. 

XL VI.  The  gerund  after  the  copula  expresses  what  must,  may,  or 
slwuld  be  done,  §  451. 

LXVII.  The  gerund  is  sometimes  used  to  descrilje  or  define  a  noun, 
§452. 

LXVni.  The  gerund  may  bo  used  as  a  final  object  to  express  an  act 
on  the  first  object,  §  453. 

LXIX.  The  gerund  is  used  to  denote  the  purpose  of  motion,  §  454. 

LXX.  The  gerund  with  an  adjective  may  exjDress  an  act  for  which 
any  thing  is  ready,  or  in  respect  to  which  any  thing  is  pleasant,  unpleai- 
ant,  easy,  icorthy,  §  454. 

LXXI.  A  participle  agrees  with  its  substantive  in  gender,  manlier,  and 
case,  §  456. 

LXXII.  A  participle  may  govern  the  case  of  its  verb,  §  456. 

Interjections. 
LXXIII.  The  interjection  has  the  syntax  of  a  clause,  §  461. 

Conjunctions. 

LXXIV.  Co-ordinate  conjunctions  connect  sentences  or  like  parts 
of  a  sentence,  §  462. 

LXXV.  A  subordinate  conjunction  connects  a  subordinate  clause 
and  the  word  with  which  it  combines,  §  467. 


2U  AEK^VNGEMENT  OF  WORDS  AND  CLAUSES. 


ARRANGEMENT  OF  WORDS  AND  CLAUSES. 

483.  General  rules  for  tlie  arrangement  of  words  and  clauses  arc  found 
in  every  language. 

The  Latin  order  is,  1.  subject;  2.  attributives;  3.  adverbial  factors;  4. 
objective  factors  ;  5.  verb. 

The  German  is,  1.  attributives;  2.  subject;  3.  adverbial  factors;  4.  ob- 
jective factors ;  5.  verb. 

The  Anglo-Saxon  is,  1.  attributives ;  2.  subject ;  3.  verb  ;  4.  objective  fac- 
tors ;  5.  adverbial. 

Deviation  from  the  general  rules  is  frequent  in  all  languages.  This  is 
either  rhetorical  or  poetical,  for  perspicuity,  emphasis,  or  euphony,  or 
historical,  preserving  relics  of  old  habits  of  the  language.  When  any  word 
is  removed  from  its  normal  place,  its  attraction  may  take  other  words  from 
their  places. 

(a.)  These  deviations  are  generally  freest  In  the  early  literature  of  early  nations.  Objects 
are  there  presented  concretely  with  many  attributes  picturesquely  grouped,  and  inverted 
constructions  and  unusual  combinations  are  sought  as  part  of  the  art  of  the  poet  and  ora- 
tor. There  is  hardly  a  conceivable  collocation  of  which  examples  may  not  be  found  in  the 
Anglo-Saxon  poetry,  and  the  artificial  meters  and  ornate  periods  of  the  Greeks  and  Eomans. 
Very  much  of  this  freedom  is  still  retained  by  the  English  poets  and  ornate  prose  writers. 
But  the  tendency  of  advancing  speech  is  to  an  analysis  of  objects  of  thought,  and  to  the  use 
of  simple  clauses,  orderly  arranged. 

The  inflected  languages  allow  more  freedom  in  the  placing  of  adjectives.  In  other  com- 
binations, the  separable  signs  of  inversion  and  of  specific  relations,  possessed  by  the  later 
analytic  languages,  would  seem  to  leave  them  freer. 

(&.)  The  additions  of  Alfred  to  Orosius,  and  his  prefaces,  have  been  specially  studied  as 
models  of  natural  arrangement  in  Anglo-Saxon. 

Predicative  Combinations. 
484. — 1.  The  subject  precedes  the  predicate. 

(a.)  So  throughout  the  Indo-European  tongues ;  in  the  Semitic  the  verb  leads. 
(&.)  The  rule  holds  for  quasi-clauses,  §  281. 

2.  The  copulative  verb  or  auxiliary  precedes  the  predicative  noun  or  verb. 

485.  Exceptions. 

1.  Declarative  clauses. 

(a.)  Emphasis.  The  verb  or  predicative  noun  may  begin  a  clause  for 
emphasis  :  (verb  very  common  in  poetry,  rare  in  prose)  stod  se  j>rada  hoda, 
stood  the  fell  envoy  (C,  G86)  ;  pxs  se  feondful  nedh,  was  the  fiend  full  nigh 
(C,  688) ; — (noun,  not  very  common  even  in  poetry)  mycel  is  se  fseder, 
great  is  the  father  (St.  Bas.  6) ;  para  jmron  six  stxl-hrdnds,  of  these  were 
six  decoy  deers  (Oros.,  1, 1, 15). 

{b.)  Attraction.  When  an  object  or  adverbial  factor  begins  a  clause,  the 
predicate  is  often  drawn  before  the  subject:  (direct  object) /e/a  spclld  him 
s&don  pa  Beormds,  many  tales  to  him  told  the  Beorms  (Oros.,  1, 1,  14) ; — 


PKEDICATIVE  COMBINATIONS.— EXCEPTIONS.  215 

(dative)  a7id  him  pses  a  pid  s&,  to  him  was  always  a  wide  sea  (1,  1,  13) ; — 
(adverb)  ne  mette  he  xr  nan  gelun  land,  not  met  he  before  any  inhabited 
land  (1, 1,  13)  ;  pa  for  he  nontrihte,  then  went  he  northward  (1, 1, 13) ;  pser 
sceal  beon  gedrinc,i\\exQ  shall  be  drinking  (1,  1,  21);  p&r  is  mid  Estu7n 
pedp,  there  is  among  the  Esthonians  a  custom  (1,1,21);  on  pdm  morum 
eardiad  Finncis,  in  the  moors  dwell  Finns  (1,  1,  16). 

(c.)  Inserted  clauses  are  often  inverted  :  tc  pat,  cpxd  Orosius,  I  know, 
quoth  Orosius  (5,  1,  1,  and  often ;  but  in  Alfred's  own  narration,  he  cpxd,  1, 
1, 16).     See  also  correlatives,  ^  485,  5,  a. 

2.  Interrogative  clauses. 

In  interrogative  clauses  the  verb  regularly  precedes  the  subject,  unless  the 
subject  contains  the  interrogative  pronoun  (so  in  other  tongues) :  lufdst 
pu  me, lovest  thou  me?  (John,  xxi,  15) ;  but  with  an  interrogative  par- 
ticle there  is  often  no  inversion.  See,  for  examples,  ^^  397-399. 
Questions  of  suggestion  with  no  interrogative  particle  occur :  odde  pe 
odres  sceolon  ahldan,  or  we  for  another  shall  look  1  (Matt.,  xi,  3). 

3.  Exclamatory  clauses. 

Exclamations  with  interrogative  words  often  have  the  verb  before  the 
subject :  ed  Id !  hu  unprest  is  pela,  alas !  how  unstable  is  wealth  (Chr., 
1087)  ;  often :  ed  la,  hu  egeslic  peos  stop  is,  how  awful  this  place  is 
(Gen.,  xxviii,  17)  ;  so  in  other  tongues,  §  421,  4. 

4.  Imperative  clauses. 

In  imperative  clauses  the  verb  precedes  the  subject  (so  in  other  tongues) : 
hdl  p&s  pu,  be  thou  whole  (Matt.,  xxvii,  29)  ;  purde  god  se  ende,  may 
the  end  be  good  (Chr.,  1066).  The  subject  sometimes  precedes  a  sub- 
junctive form  :  sih  si  mid  eopic,  peace  be  with  you  (Ex.,  282,  25) ;  for 
other  examples,  see  §  421,  3. 

5.  Co-ordinate  clauses. 

The  verb  often  follows  next  to  the  conjunction:  and  licgad pilde  moras 
pid  edstan,  and  lie  wild  moors  eastward  (Oros.,  1,  1,  16)  ;  and  berad 
pa  Cpends  hyrd  scypu  ofer  land,  and  the  Cwens  bear  their  ships  over 
land  (1,  1,  17)  ;  ac  him  pxs  paste  land,  hut  to  him  was  waste  land  (1,  1, 
13).     Compare  ^  485,  b. 

(a.)  Correlatives  often  have  the  second  clause  inverted :  ponnc  his  ges- 
treon  bebd  pus  eal  dspended,  ponnc  byrdman  hine  wf,  when  his  wealth 
is  thus  all  spent,  then  beareth  one  him  out  (1, 1,22).  Parallelism  is 
a  marked  feature  of  poetry ;  the  second  clause  is  often  inverted  :  gdr- 
secg  hlynede,  beoton  bnmstredmus,  ocean  roared,  beat  the  sea  waves 
(An.,  239). 

0.  Subordinate  clauses. 

(a.)  Substantive  clauses  generally  have  the  subject  first,  even  though 
an  interrogative  (in  oralio  obliqua)  :  he  dxode  hu  p&re  peode  nama  p&re,  he 
asked  .>vhat  the  people's  name  might  be  (Horn.,  2,  120). 


216        ARRANGEMENT.— ATTRIBUTIVE  COMBINATIONS. 

(b.)  Adjective  clauses  are  inverted  when  the  relative  is  governed  by  a 
preposition  :  cal  Jlxsc,  on  pam  pe  is  llfcs  gdst,  all  flesh  in  which  is  the 
breath  of  life  (Gen.,  vi,  17); — sometimes  with  no  preposition:  &nne, pam 
pies  ludas  nnma,  one,  to  whom  was  Judas  a  name  (El.,  584). 

(c.)  Adverbial  clauses  of  place  and  time  are  rarely  inverted :  ponne 
/«"■?•  hut  man  dead,  he  /«/,when  there  is  one  dead,  he  lieth  (Oros.,  1,  1,21)  ; 
— modal  sometimes  :  spa  stod  se  deofol  spa  spa  dcd  se  hlinde,  so  stood  the 
devil  as  doth  the  blind  man  (Horn.,  2,  446) ; — conditional  and  conces- 
.sive,  if  without  sign  :  hut  se  tor  pyrel,  be  the  door  opened  (Jul.,  402)  ; 
nxfde  he  nscfre  spa  mycel  yfel  gcdon,  had  he  never  so  much  evil  done 
(=though  he  had)  (Chr.,  1087) ; — sometimes  with  :  nirfde  he  peak,  he  had 
not  though  (Oros.,  1,  1,  15). 

7.  Quasi-clauses. 

(a.)  Participles  sometimes  precede  their  subjects :  ealle  niht  spincende 
pc,  all  night  toiling,  we  (took  nothing)  (Luc,  v,  5)  ; — absolute  :  rixiendum 
Eddbaldum,  Eadbald  ruling,  (Mellitus  departed)  (Chr.,  616). 

(S.)  Factitives  sometimes  precede  for  emphasis  :  learnleasne  ge  habbact 
me  gedonnc,  childless  ye  have  made  me  (Gen.,  xlii,  36). 

486.  Exceptious  to  the  second  rule  are  frequent,  §  484,  2. 
Gefaren  hs-fdon,  they  had  gone  (Bed.,  1,  23) ;  he  gyldan  pille,  he  will 

pay  (B.,  1184) ;  ofcrseon  m&gc,  may  look  over  (Oros.,  1,  1,  18)  ;  eal 
pxt  his  mmi  erian  mieg,  all  that  his  man  may  till  (1,  1,  16) ;  p&r  hit 
smalost  pAre,  wherever  it  smallest  were  (1,  1,  16)  ;  odtte  hyt  eal  died 
but,  till  it  all  laid  is  (1,  1,  22)  ;  polde  hyne  genemnedne  beon,  wished 
him  to  be  named  (Luc,  i,  62).  So  in  the  old  French  and  other  early 
Romanic  tongues  (Diez,  3,  439). 

At'teibutive   Combinations. 

487.  Attributive  adjectives  or  genitives  stand  next  before  their 
substantive,  appositives  or  preposi.tions  with  their  cases  next 
after. 

So  in  the  Teutonic  tongues.  In  Latin,  attributives  generally  follow  their  substantive. 
The  Greek  is  freer.  The  old  Komanic  were  free,  the  new  have  different  habits  for 
different  words  (Diez,  3,  433). 

1.  Before.  Descriptives  :  pilde  moras,  wild  rnoors  (Oros.,  1,  1,  16); 
lipxles  ia?ie,  whale's  bone  (1,1,15);  —  definitives,  pronominal :  on 
sumum  stopum,  in  some  places  (I,  1,  16) ;  heord  spedd,  their  wealth 
(1,  1,  15) ; — numerals :  tpdm  pucum,  in  two  weeks  (1,  1,  16). 

2.  After.  Appositive  :  his  hldforde  Mlfrede,  (said  to)  his  lord,  Alfred 
(1,  1,  13)  ;  Sidroc,  se  geonga,  Sidroc,  the  young  (Chr.,  871),  so  in 
Romanic  (Diez.  3,  431); — with  preposition:  red/  of  hsUrum,  garment 
of  hair  (Matt.,  iii,  4). 

488.  A  definitive  precedes  a  descriptive. 


ATTRIBUTIVE  COMBINATIONS.— EXCEPTIONS.  217 

Se  betsta  hpEel-huntad,  the  best  whale  hunting  (Oros.,  1, 1,  14) ;  pd  pildan 
hrdnds^ihe  wild  rein-deer  (1,  1,  15)  ;  dn  mycel  ed,  a  great  river  (1,  1, 
13)  ;  J)one  ylcan  ssks  earm,  (they  have)  the  same  sea's  arm  (1,  1,  12) ; 
fram  his  dgnum  hdme,  from  his  own  home  (1,  1,  13).  So  in  other 
tongues. 

489.  Of  definitives,  quantitatives  precede  demonstratives,  which 
precede  possessive?,  which  precede  articles,  Avhich  precede  nu- 
merals. 

Quantitatives:  eal  peos  poruld,  ^W  this  world  (C,  604)  ;  ealle  his 
spedd,  all  his  goods  (Oros.,  1, 1,  22) ;  ealle  pd  men,  all  the  men  (1,  1, 
22) ;  hutu  pd  scypu,  both  the  ships  (Luc.,  v,  7)  ;  healfne  pone  speoran, 
half  the  neck  (Jud.,  105;  Mc,  vi,  23) ;  sume  pd  bocerds,  some  of  the 
scribes  (Matt.,  ix,  3) ;  mid  fedpum  pdm  getrypestum  mannum,  with 
a  few  of  the  truest  men  (Ap.,  6) ;  xnig  otter  ping,  any  other  thing 
(John,  X,  29).  So  in  Romanic  (Diez,  3,  438). 
Demonstratives  :  pds  mine  pord,  these  my  words  (Matt.,  vii,  24). 
Possessives  :   min  se  gecorena  sunu,  my  (the)  chosen  son  (Matt.,  iii, 

n). 

Articles  :  on  pxre  dure  mile,  in  the  one  mile  (Oros.,  1,1,  22) ;  on  p&m 
odrum  prim  dagum,  in  the  second  three  days  (Oros.,  1,  1,  13;  Chr., 
897).     So  in  Romanic  (Diez,  3,  436). 
(a.)  Forma  (first)   and   oder  (second,  other)  are  sometimes  used  in  the 
plural  describing  a  class,  and  are  then  arranged  as  descriptives,  ^  488 ;  pd 
prelj  forman  gebedu,  the  three  first  prayers  (Hom.,  1,  270) ;  tpegen  odrc 
mdnfulle,  two  other  malefactors  (Luc,  xxiii,  32),  so  in  other  languages  : 
iTTra  TUQ  iffxurag,  Lat.  septem  novissimas,  the  seven  last  (plagues)  (English 
Bible,  Rev.,  xv,  1 ;  xxi,  9)  ;  I  read  to  Albert  the  three  first  cantos  of  the 
Lay  of  the  Last  Minstrel  (Queen  Victoria,  Life  in  the  Highlands,  p.  40) ; 
our  two  eldest  children  (Same,  76,  234) ;  two  other  keepers  (Same,  70) ; 
in  den  sechs  ersten  conjugationen  (J.  Grimm,  D.  G.,  1, 1038) ;  les  onze  pre- 
miers chapitres,  the  eleven  first  chapters  (Renan,  Hist.  Sem.  Lang.,  1,  27) ; 
las  das  primcras  partes  (Don  Carlos,  quoted  in  Motley,  R.  D.  R.,iii,  193) ; 
las  cuatro  primeras  (Don  Quijote,  352)  ;  i  dieci  jjrimi  libri  (Diez,  3,  436). 

(6.)  The  English  a,  an,  after  many,  such,  half,  too  (great),  so  (great),  how  (great),  as  (great), 
etc.,  is  in  the  Old  English,  but  not  in  Anglo-Sasou :  manig  lurh,  many  (a)  town  (Oros.,  1, 
1,  20),  etc. 

490.  Exceptions. 

\.  Descriptive  adjectives  sometimes  follow. 

(a.)  Two  descriptives  the  substantive  often  stands  between  (so  in  the 
Romanic  tongues  [Diez,  3,  435]) :  spide  micle  merds  fersce,  very  large  seas 
fresh  (Oros.,  1,  1,  17) ;  tamrd  deord  unbebohtrd,  tame  deer  unbought  (1,  1, 
15); — often  with  a  conjunction:  god  man  and  chvne,  good  man  and  pure 
(Chr.,  1050) ; — sometimes  both  precede  :  pam  fwgcrestan  reddan  hipc,  of 


218  ARKANGEMENT.— OBJECTIVE  COMBINATIONS. 

the  fairest  red  hue  (Gt.  G.,  1);  for  p&m  mislUcum  and  manigfealdum 
pcoruld-bisgum,  lor  the  various  and  manifold  secular  occupations  (Boet., 
Pref.)  ; — sometimes  both  follow  :  calrd  pingu,  gesepcnUcrd  mid  ungesepen- 
licrd,  of  all  things  seen  and  unseen  (Horn.,  1,274). 

(J.)  In  poetry:  gled-egesa  ^nm,  fire-fear  grim  (B.,  2650);  magopegn 
mddig,  hero  spirited  (B.,  2757) ;  m'lhtig  (1519),  etc.  Poetic  inversion  is 
used  in  all  languages  (Diez,  3,  430). 

2,  Definitives  often  follow. 

{a.)  Quantitatives :  p&r  bid.  medo  gen6h,i\\exe  is  mead  enough  (Oros.,  1, 
1,  20) ;  pas  land  eal  hyrad,  those  lands  all  belong  (to  Denmark)  (1,  1,  20)  ; 
land  eal,  all  lands  (Sal.,  185)  ;  ure  calrd  moder,  mother  of  us  all  (Bas.  Hex., 
11)  ;  magodriht  micel,  great  youth-throng  (B.,67) ;  manig  (B.,838) ;  heard 
hegrd  edgan,  eyes  of  them  both  (Gen.,  iii,  7) ; — {h.)  possessives,  in  poetry 
often:  peoden  min,  master  mine  (B.,  365);  hldford  p'mne,\oTi  thine  (B., 
267) ;  slnne,  his  (B.,  2789) ;  userne,  our  (B.,  3107)  ;  eoperne,  your  (B., 
2889) ; — (c.)  numerals,  rare  {pd?7i  xdelestum  ceastrum  dues  pana  priitigum, 
with  the  noblest  towns,  thirty  less  one  (Bed.,  1, 1).  So  sometimes  Romanic 
derivatives  of  totus,  tantus,  talis,  and  possessives  (Diez,  3, 436, 437). 

3,  Genitives  partitive  aud  characteristic  freely  follow. 
Numerals  (regularly) :  tpentig  scedpd,  twenty  of  sheep  (Oros.,  1, 1, 15)  ;— 

other  words  (occasionally)  :  on  odre  healfe  pxs  mores,  on  the  other  side  of 
the  moor  (1,  1,  17)  ;  nan  ping  grenes,  nothing  green  (Exod.,  x,  15)  ;  feoper 
circulds  hpites  Mpes,  four  circles  of  white  hue  (Chr.,  1104)  ; — possessive  and 
other  genitives  may  sometimes  follow,  ^^  310-313. 

4,  Appositives  in  the  genitive  are  often  separated  by  a  governing  word  : 
Aldpulfes  dohtor  pxs  cynzw^-e^,  daughter  of  Aldwulf  the  king  (St.  G.,  18): 
this  was  common  as  late  as  the  Morte  d'Arthure. 

5.  Any  attributive  may  be  separated  by  words  which  modify  it,  from  its  subject.  Poetry 
allows  the  interposition  of  parenthetic  clauses  even,  between  the  adjective  aud  noun. 

6.  For  participles  and  adjectives  in  quasi-predicative  combinations,  see  4S4,  b. 

491.  Objective  Combinations. 

1.  Objects  follow  the  verb  ox  predicate  adjective. 

2.  A  genitive  follows  a  dative  which  follows  an  accusative. 
For  the  factitive  object,  see  §§  484,  h  ;  485,  7,  h. 

Hi  brohton  sume  pxm  cyninge,  they  brought  some  to  the  king  (Oros.,1, 
1,14);  benseman  nergendne  Crist  roderd  rices,  io  deprive  the  Savior 
Christ  of  heaven's  kingdom  (C,  286,  3) ;  ondred  he  him  pxs,  he  took 
dread  to  himself  at  that  (John,  xix,  8).  A  dative  and  genitive  are  seldom 
found  after  the  same  verb,  §  492,  3.     See  after  adjectives,  §^  315-319. 

492.  Exceptions. 

1.  Emphasis.  An  object  often  begins  a  clause  for  emphasis :  pa  deor  hi 
hdtad  hrdnds,  those  deer  they  call  rein-deer  (Oros.,  1, 1, 15) ;  sometimes 


ADVERBIAL  COJIBINATIOXS.  219 

a  repeating  pronoun  follows :  pa  ted  hi  brohton  sume  pxin  cyninge, 
these  teeth  they  brought  some  (of)  to  the  king  (1, 1, 15). 
(a.)  So  the  interrogative  regularly  :  hpxt  godes  do  ic,  what  good  must  I 
dol  (Matt.,  xix,  16). 

2.  Relics.  In  German  objects  precede  their  verb,  and  their  order  is  (1) 
dative,  (2)  accusative,  (3)  genitive. 

(a.)  A  genitive  object  very  often  immediately  precedes  the  verb  or  adjec- 
tive.    For  examples,  see  ^§  315-319. 

(b.)  The  dative  of  the  personal  pronoun  generally  precedes  impersonals 
and  copulatives  :  him  puhte,  it  seemed  to  him  (Oros.,  1, 1, 14) ;  him  pxs,  to 
him  was  (=he  had)  (1,  1, 13). 

(c.)  A  direct  object  often  stands  between  the  subject  and  verb:  pe  hit 
piton,we  it  knew  (Oros.,  1,  1, 11) ;  pe  spyf teste  hors  habbait,  who  swiftest 
horses  have  (1, 1,22). 

(d.)  An  object  often  stands  between  the  auxiliary  and  verb :  Hi  magon 
cyle  gepyrcan,  they  can  cold  produce  (Oros.,  1, 1,  23). 

3.  Attraction.  Inversion  of  one  part  of  the  predicate  draws  others. 
Two  objects  very  often  precede  the  verb  :  fela  spelld  him  s&don,  many 
tales  to  him  told  (they)  (Ores.,  1, 1, 14).  See  more  examples,  ^^  297„  a, 
315,  a,  5. 

(a.)  The  relative  is  regularly  attracted  to  the  beginning  of  its  clause : 
gdrsecg,  J)e  man  Cpen-sx  h&t,  the  sea,  which  one  calls  Cwen-sea  (Oros.,  1, 
1,11);  gafole,  pe  pa  Finnds  him  gyldad,  tribute,  which  the  Finns  to  them 
pay  (1,  1, 15). 

493.  Adveebial  Combinations. 

1.  An  adverb  follows  its  verh,\>\x%  precedes  its  adjective  or 
adverb. 

2.  A  preposition  with  its  following  (attributives +)  notin 
follows  next  the  word  to  which  it  shows  the  relation. 

494,  Exceptions. 

1.  Emphasis.  Any  adverbial  factor  may  begin  its  clause  for  emphasis. 
On  pihm  landiim  eardodon  Engle,  in  those  lands  dwelt  Angles  (Oros., 
1,  1,  19) ;  Edsteperd  hit  mcpg  biun  syxtig  mild  brad,  eastward  it  may 

<    be  sixty  miles  broad  (1,  1,  16)  ;  Ne  mette  he,  he  met  not  (1,  1,  13). 

(a.)  Adverbs  of  time,  place,  order,  very  often  begin  a  clause  :  pa  for  he, 
then  went  he  (1,  1,  13)  ;  l)yder,he  c/aw/,  thither,  he  said  (1,  1,  18);  ponnc 
xrnad  hi  ealle,  next  run  they  all  (I,  1,  22). 

{b.)  Interrogatives  regularly  begin  their  clause  :  hpxr  is  hcord  God, 
where  is  their  God"?  (Psa.,cxiii,  10). 

2.  Perspicuity.  When  two  or  more  adverbial  factors  modify  the  same 
word,  their  order  is  free.  They  are  usually  some  before  and  some  after 
the  word :  pd  he  pidcrpcard  scglode  fram  Sciringcs  hcalc,  when  he 

k 


220  ARRANGEMENT.— ADVERBIAL  COMBINATIONS. 

tliitlicr  sailed  from  Sciringsheal  (Oros.,  1, 1, 19)  ;  calle  pa  hptle  he  sccal 
scglian  be  lande,  all  the  while  he  must  sail  along  the  land  (1, 1, 18). 

{a.)  In  German  the  order  is  (1)  time,  (2)  place,  (3)  cause,  (4)  co-existence,  (5)  modality  or  ne- 
gation, (G)  manner,  all  before  the  verb.  There  is  more  or  less  approach  to  the  same  order 
in  Anglo-Saxon. 

3.  Old  habits,  (a.)  Adverbial  factors  are  very  often  found  between 
the  subject  and  verb :  J)d  hpxl-huntan  fyrrest  farad,  the  whale  hunters 
furthest  go  (Oros.,  1,  1,  13) ;  he  f ram  his  dgnum  hdme  for,  he  from  his 
own  home  went  (1,  1, 13) ;  so  regularly  the  negative  :  hy  ne  dorslon, 
they  durst  not  (1, 1, 13). 

{b.)  Adverbial  factors  are  very  often  found  between  an  auxiliary  and  its 
verb,  or  the  copula  and  predicate :  he  mihte  onfeoper  dagum  geseglian,  he 
might  in  four  days  sail  (1,  1, 13,  and  everywhere) ;  Jjxt  land  is  edstepeard 
brddost,  the  land  is  eastward  broadest  (1, 1,  16). 

(c.)  The  adverb  before  its  adjective  or  adverb  is  regular :  hyrd  hyd  but 
spkte  god,  their  hide  is  very  good  (1, 1, 14). 

{d)  The  preposition  is  sometimes  separated  from  its  case  to  take  the 
place  of  an  adverb;  St,'  here  him  fie  dh  beforan, the  army  him  flee  before 
(CJir.,  1016) ;  ]je  he  on  budc,  which  he  dwelt  on  (Oros.,  1,  1,  18)  ;  pe  heord 
spcdd  on  bead,  which  their  riches  are  in  (1,  1,  15 ;  1,  1,  22).  Sometimes 
it  follows  its  case :  hi  pyrcad  pone  cyle  hine  on,  they  produce  cold  on 
him  (1,  1,23) ;  ne  dorston  Jj&r  on  cuman,ihey  durst  n-ot  there  on  come  (1, 
1,  13). 

4.  Attraction.  Relative  adverbs  begin  their  clause  :  hus,panon  ic  code, 
house  whence  I  went  (Matt.,  xii,  44).  For  other  cases,  see  ^  485,  b, 
and  examples  in  ^  494,  2. 

495.  Akeangement  op   Clauses. 

1.  Co-ordinate  clauses  are  free  to  follow  the  order  of  thought. 

(fl.)  Courtesy. — Copulate  subjects  of  different  persons  should  have  the 
first  person  follow  the  third,  and  the  third  follow  the  second. 

A  royal  speaker  may  perhaps  be  an  exception :  "  I  and  the  girls,"  "  I 
and  Alice"  (Queen  Vict.,  Life  in  Highlands,  173). 

Subordinate  Clauses. 

1.  Substantive  clauses  regularly  follow  their  leading  clause.  For  ex- 
amples, see  ^  468. 

2.  Adjective  clauses  regularly  follow  the  word  they  describe.     For  ex- 

amples, see  ^  470,  and  sections  there  referred  to. 

3.  Adverbial  clauses  freely  take  any  place  in  the  sentence  according  to 
the  demands  of  emphasis,  perspicuity,  or  euphony.  They  incline  to  the 
order  of  adverbial  factors  of  a  clause,  ^§  493,  494. 

(a.)  Conditional  and  concessive  clauses  oftenest  precede.  Examples, 
^^431,432. 


CLAUSES.  221 

{/).)  Insertion. — Leading  clauses  are  sometimes  inserted  in  subordinates : 
and  nordepeard,  he  cpxd,p&r  hit  smalost  p3ire,pxt  hit  mihte  heon,  etc.,  and 
northward,  he  said,  where  it  was  narrowest,  that  it  might  be  (three  miles 
broad)  (Oros.,1,1,16). 

(c.)  Variations  are  found  with  substantive  and  adjective  clauses  after  the 
analogy  of  substantives  and  adjectives,  ^§  485-490. 


PAET   IV. 

PEOSODY. 


49G.  Prosody  treats  of  the  rhythm  of  Poetry. 

497.  Rhythm  is  an  orderly  succession  of  beats  of  sound. 

This  beat  is  called  an  ictus  or  arsis,  and  the  syllable  on  which  it  falls  is 
also  called  the  arsis.  The  alternate  remission  of  voice,  and  the  sylla- 
bles so  uttered,  are  called  the  thesis. 

498.  Feet  are  the  elementary  combinations  of  syllables  in  verse. 

(as.)  Feet  are  named  from  the  order  and  make  of  their  arsis  and  thesis.  A  monosyllabic 
ars?s-)-a  monosyllabic  tliesis  is  a  trochee ;  +a  dissyllabic  thesis  is  a  dactyle,  etc. 

Stress.  In  Anglo-Saxon  these  depend  on  the  accented  syllables,  which  are  deter- 
mined by  the  stress  they  would,  if  the  passage  were  prose,  receive  to  distinguish 
them  from  other  syllables  of  the  same  word,  or  from  other  words  in  the  sentence. 

Accent  is  therefore  verbal,  syntactical,  or  rhetorical.  An  unemphatic  dissyllable  may 
count  as  two  unaccented  syllables,  like  the  second  part  of  a  compound.  Secondary 
accents  may  take  the  arsis. 

1.  A  tonic  is  a  single  accented  syllable+a  pause. 

2.  A  trocliee  is  an  accented+an  unaccented  syllable. 

3.  A  dactyle  is  an  accented+two  unaccented  syllables. 

4.  A  paeon  is  an  accented+three  unaccented  syllables. 

5.  A  pyrrhic  is  two  unaccented  syllables ;  a  spondee  is  two  accented ; 
an  iambus  is  an  unaccented+an  accented  ;  an  anapaest  is  two  unac- 
cented-fan accented  ;  a  tribrach  is  three  unaccented  ;  a  single  unac- 
cented syllable  is  called  an  atonic;  and  unaccented  syllables  prelim- 
inary to  the  normal  feet  of  a  line  are  called  an  anacrusis  (striking  up) 
or  base. 

(6.)  Time.  The  time  from  each  ictus  to  the  next  is  the  same  in  any  section.  It  is 
not  always  filled  up  with  sound.  More  time  is  given  to  an  accented  than  an  unac- 
cented syllable. 

(c.)  Pitch.  The  English  and  most  other  Indo-Europeans  raise  the  pitch  vnth  the 
verbal  accent ;  the  Scots  lower  it.  With  the  rhetorical  accent  the  pitch  varies  every 
way. 

{d.)  Expression.  Feet  of  two  syllables  are  most  conversational;  those  of  three  are 
more  ornate ;  those  of  one  syllable  are  emphatic,  like  a  thud  or  the  blows  of  a  ham- 
mer. The  trochee,  dactyle,  and  paeon,  in  which  the  accented  syllable  precedes,  have 
more  ease,  grace,  and  vivacity.  Those  feet  in  which  the  accented  syllable  comes  last 
have  more  decision,  emphasis,  and  strength  (Crosby,  §  C95).  The  Anglo-Saxon  me- 
ters are  trochaic  and  dactylic ;  the  English  oftener  iambic  and  anapsestic. 

499.  A  verse  is  an  elementary  division  of  a  poem. 


VERSE.— CiESUEA.— RIME.  223 

It  has  a  twofold  nature ;  it  is  a  series  of  feet,  and  also  a  series 
of  words. 

(a.)  As  a  series  of  feet,  it  is  a  sing-song  of  regiilar  nps  and  downs,  sucti  as  children 
sometimes  give  in  repeating  rhymes. 

As  a  series  of  words,  each  word  and  pause  would  be  the  same  as  if  it  were  prose,  as 
persons  who  do  not  catch  the  meter  often  read  poetry. 

The  cantilation  never  is  the  same  as  the  prose  utterance ;  lines  in  which  it  should  be 
would  be  prosaic. 

The  art  of  versification  consists  in  so  arranging  the  prose  speech  in  the  ideal  frame- 
work of  the  line  that  the  reader  may  adjust  one  to  the  other  without  obscuring  ei- 
ther, and  with  continual  happy  variety. 

(6.)  The  manner  of  adapting  the  arsis  and  thesis  to  the  prose  pronunciation  is  different 
in  different  languages.  In  Sanskrit,  and  classical  Greek  and  Latin,  the  arsis  was 
laid  on  syllables  having  a  long  sotmd,  and  variety  was  found  in  the  play  of  the  prose 
accent.  In  other  languages,  including  modern  Greek  and  Latin,  the  arsis  is  made  to 
fall  on  accented  syllables,  and  free  play  is  given  to  long  and  short  vowel  sounds,  and 
combinations  of  consonants.  The  Sanskrit  and  Greek  varied  farther  from  prose 
speech  in  the  recitation  of  poetry  than  modem  habits  and  ears  allow.  The  Hindoos 
stiSl  repeat  Sanskrit  poetry  in  recitative. 

500.  Verses  are  named  from  the  prevailing  foot  trochaic,  dactylic,  larn- 
bic,  a.nd  anapmstic,  etc. 

Verses  are  named  from  the  number  of  feet.  A  monometer  is  a  verse 
of  one  foot ;  a  dimeter  of  two  ;  a  trimeter  of  three  ;  a  tetrameter 
of  four ;  a  pentameter  of  five  ;  a  hexameter  of  six  ;  a  heptameter 
of  seven  ;  an  octom.eter  of  eight, 
(a.)  A  verse  is  catalectic  when  it  wants  a  syllable,  acatalecUc  when  complete,  hypercata- 
Icctic  when  redundant. 

501.  Cassura. — Anglo-Saxon  verses  are  made  in  two  sections  or  hemi- 
stichs.  The  pause  between  these  sections  is  called  the  caesura.  Afoot 
ccESura  is  made  by  the  cutting  oi  afoot  by  the  end  of  a  ivord. 

(a.)  Expression.  The  character  of  versification  depends  much  on  the  management 
of  the  ca;suras.  When  the  weight  of  a  verse  precedes  the  caesura,  the  movement  has 
more  vivacity;  when  it  follows,  more  gravity. 

502.  Rime. — Rime  is  the  rhythmical  repetition  of  letters. 

Nations  who  unite  arsis  and  prose  accent  need  to  mark  off  their  verses 
plainly.     They  do  it  by  rime.     Other  nations  shun  rime. 

1.  When  the  riming  letters  begin  their  words,  it  is  called  alliteration. 

2.  When  the  accented  vowels  and  following  letters  are  alike,  it  is  called 
perfect  rime  (=  rhyme). 

3.  When  only  the  consonants  are  alike,  it  is  called  half  rime. 

4.  When  the  accented  syllable  is  final,  the  rime  is  single ;  when  one  un- 
accented syllable  follows,  the  rime  is  double ;  when  two,  it  is  triple. 

(a.)  Line-rime  is  between  two  words  in  the  same  section.  Final -rime 
between  the  last  words  of  two  sections  or  verses. 

503.  Alliteration  is  the  recurrence  of  the  same  initial  sound 
in  the  first  accented  syllables  of  words. 

1.  Consonants. — The  first  initial  consonant  of  alliterating  syllables  must 
be  the   same,  the   other   consonants   of  a   combination   need  not  be; 


22i  ALLITERATION. 

Bcopulf:  hrcmcy.hhi'd  (B.,  18);   Caincs  :  cynneWcpcalm  (107);  Crls- 
tcnrdwCxjriacus  (El.,  1069);   cude :: cmht  (B.,  312)  ;  funden::frdfrc 
(j)  \  frsetpum  :  jlet  (2054);  geong  : geardum'.'.God  (13),-  gaogodc:: 
gleapost    (C,  221,  1);    grimma  :  gcbst    (B.,  102);    heofenum  :  hlxstc 
(52);  hxledd -.hryre'.'.hpate  (2052);   hnitanwhringum   (Rid.,  87,  4)  : 
sudlice::spcololan  (B.,  141);  sccarp  :  scyldwscdd  (288);  scridende:: 
sceapum  (Trav.,  135) ;   Scottd'.'.scip  (Chr,,  938)  ;  peod'.'.prym  (B.,  2) ; 
pen  : plenco'.'.prxc  (338). 
2.  Vowels. — A  perfect  vowel   alliteration    demands   different  vowels  : 
isig  :  utfuswxdelinges  (B.,  33) ; — sometimes  the  same  vowels  repeat: 
corld  :  eordanW coper  (B.,  248). 
{a.)  sc,  sp,  or  st  seldom  alliterate  without  repeating  the  whole  combina- 
tion;   but:    scyppend::  serif  en  (B.,  106);    spere  :  sprengde::  sprang  (By., 
137);  strwld  :  storm  y.strengum  (B.,3117). 

{b.)  Words  in  ia-,  io-,  iu-,  Hie-,  alliterate  with  those  in  g-.     They  are 
mostly  foreign  proper  names.     See  ^^  28,  34. 

Jacobesr.gode  (Psa.,lxxxvi,  1,  and  often) ;  lafed :  gumnncum  (C.,1552)  ; 
lordaner.grene  (C,  1921)  ;  lobes::  God  (Met.,  26,  47) ;  goda  :  gedsne 
::ludas  (El.,  924);  Iuded::God  (El.,  209);  gledp  :  Gode::lultana 
(Jul.,  131,  and  often)  ;  gomen  :  geardum::iu  (B.,  2459),  so  frequently 
iuz=ge6,  gio  (formerly)  and  its  compounds ;  Hierusolme::  God  (Ps.  C, 
50, 134)  ;  gongad :  gegnunga : ;  Hierusalem  (Guth.,  785)  ;  written  gold  : 
Gerusalem : :  luded  (C,  260, 11). 
(c.)  It  is  said  that  p  may  alliterate  with  s  by  Dietrich  (Haupt  Zeit.,  x, 
323,  362).     No  sure  examples  found.     C,  287, 23,  is  a  defective  line. 

504.  A  perfect  Anglo-Saxon  verse  has  three  alliterating  sylla- 
bles, two  in  the  first  section,  the  other  in  the  second. 

Fnim'\sceaft^  \  Yir'\(T  \\  Feorr'lan^  \  Teccl\arC  (B,,  91). 
the  origin  of       men         from  far       relate. 

(a.)  The  repeated  letter  is  called  the  rime-letter ;  the  one  in  the  second 
couplet  the  chief -letter,  the  others  the  sub-letters.  The  F  oi  feorran 
in  the  line  above  is  the  chief-letter ;  the  F  in  frumsceaft  and  fird  the 
sub-letters. 

{]).)  One  of  the  sub-letters  is  often  wanting. 

(c.)  Four  or  more  rime-letters  are  sometimes  found. 

ILednes  .  .  "Leohte  .  •  ||  •  •  LeVe  .  .  liange  (C,  258). 

In  pairs  :  pxt'  he  \  God'e  |  pold'\e''  ||  geonglra"  \  peord'\an\ 

that  he  to  God    would        a  vassal      be     (C.,  277),  where  g- 
and  p  both  rime,  and  so  often. 

505.  The  Anglo-Saxons  used  line-rime  and  final-rime  as  an  oc- 
casional grace  of  verse.     See  §  511. 

506.  Verse  in  which  alliteration  is  essential,  and  other  rime  ornamental,  is  the  pre- 
vailinj;  form  in  Anglo-Saxon,  Icelandic,  Old  Saxon.    Specimens  are  found  in  Old  High 


COMMON  NARRATIVE  VERSE.  225 

German.  Alliteration  in  these  languages  even  ran  into  prose,  and  is  oue  of  the  causes 
of  the  thoroughness  with  which  the  shifting  of  the  initial  consonants  has  affected  the 
whole  speech,  §  41,  B. 

50  / .  Verse  with  final  rime,  and  with  alliteration  as  an  occasional  grace,  is  the  common 
form  in  English  and  the  modern  Germanic  and  Romanic  languages.  It  is  common  in  the 
Low-Latin  verses  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  poets,  and  it  is  by  many  supposed  to  have  spread 
from  the  Celtic. 

Common  Narrative  Verse. 

508.  Beda  says  of  rhythm:  "It  is  a  modulated  composition  of  words,  not  according 
to  the  laws  of  meter,  but  adapted  in  the  number  of  its  syllables  to  the  judgment  of  the  ear, 
as  are  the  verses  of  our  vulgar  poets.  *  ♦  *  Yet,  for  the  most  part,  you  may  find,  by  a  sort 
of  chance,  some  rule  in  rhythm ;  but  this  is  not  from  an  artificial  government  of  the  syl- 
lables. It  arises  because  the  sonnd  and  the  modulation  lead  to  it.  The  vulgar  poets  effect 
this  rustically,  the  skillful  attain  it  by  their  skill."— Bed.,  1,  57.  These  remarks  on  the 
native  poets  are  doubtless  applicable  to  their  Anglo-Saxon  verses  as  well  as  their  Latin ; 
and  whatever  general  rules  we  may  find  running  through  these  poems,  we  may  expect  to 
find  many  exceptional  lines,  which  belong  in  their  places  only  because  they  can  be  recited 
with  a  cadence  somewhat  like  the  verses  around  them. 

509.  The  common  narrative  verse  has  four  feet  in  each  section. 

A.  1.  An  arsis  falls  on  every  prose  accent,  ^  15,  and  the  last  syllable  of 
every  section.     But  note  contractions  below,  7. 

2.  At  least  one  arsis  on  a  primary  accent,  or  two  on  other  syllables  follow 
tlie  chief  alliterating  letter,  ^  504. 

3.  An  arsis  should  fall  on  the  former  of  two  unaccented  syllables  after  an 
accented  long  (the  vowel  long  or  followed  by  two  consonants),  and  on  the 
latter  after  an  accented  short. 

Bcyld'\uin  bi\acer' e\de\  ||  acynd'\an''  ge\ner'e\de'  (Rime  Song,  84). 

4.  An  arsis  should  not  fall  on  an  unaccented  proper  prefix  (a-,  he-,  ge-, 
etc.,^  15),  or  proclitic  monosyllables  (be,  se,pe,  etc.),  or  short  endings  of 
dissyllabic  particles  (nefne,  ottde,  ponne,  etc.),  or  short  tense-endings  between 
two  accented  shorts  in  the  same  section. 

5.  An  arsis  may  fall  on  a  long,  on  a  short  between  two  accents  (after  a 
long  frequent,  after  a  short,  less  so),  on  the  former  of  two  unaccented  shorts. 

grorn'  \  torn'  \  grw/'led',  \\  graft'  \  rwft'  ha?f'\ed^  (Rime  Song,  6G). 

spylc'e  I  gi'  |  ganf  \  ds^  \pa  pid  \  God'e  \punn'  |  on'  (B.,  11*3). 

mp'\e^  I  niht'-lpeard'  \\  nyd'\e^  \  sceol'\de'  (C,  185, 1). 

pord'  purd'\i^  \  an\  ||    Veol'  \  him'  on  \  tnn'  \  an''  (C,  353). 

burh'  I  tim'\bre^  \  de^  (C,  2840).     Rare  with  short  penult  of  trisyllable. 

B.  6.  The  thesis  is  mute  or  monosyllabic  ;  but  syncope,  elision,  synizesis, 
or  synaloepha  is  often  needed  to  reduce  two  syllables. 

7.  An  anacrusis  may  introduce  any  section.     It  is  of  one  syllable,  rarely 
two,  sometimes  apparently  three,  with  the  same  contractions  as  t<lie  tresis. 
Let' on  I  p{d)  of'er  \  Hf'el  \  p&g'  ||  fdm'\i'^ge  \  scrid'\an^  (El.,  237). 
puld'or\-cyn'ing\cs''  \  pord'  ||  ge)/>eot'an  |  pa'  pa  \  pit'(i)gan  \  pry' (A.n., 802). 
spic'od  (c)  ymb'  pd  \  adp'lle'  \\Jjc)  hire  \  Ar'  /jd  \  &ien'{e)  on\ldh'  (C,  607). 

P 


226  COMMON  NAUKATIVK  N'KHSE. 

Synizesis  o[  -annc,-ric,-scipc,pcnden,iind  the  liko.  St/naloepha  q(  ge-, 
pc,  and  the  like. 

Borh'  is  I  me  to  \  Becg'\anne''  |1  on'  \  acf'an  \  min'\u7n^  (B.,  473). 

prxtlic'nc  \  pund' or\-mactd'\um''  |{  (B.,2174). 

fijrd'\-scar'o  |  iiis'  \  licu^  ||  (B.,  232). 

ea.ht'16'don  \  eorl'\-scipe''  ||  (B.,317'1). 

pcs'an  \pcnd'cn  ic  \pcald'\e^  ||  (B.,  1859). 

pcgn'ds  I  synd'on  ge\-ppiur'\e^  {|  (B.,  1230). 

pdr'd  l)C  I  pkV  spa  \  'mic'\luni'  ||  (C,  2095). 

pxt  n&fre  )Grrend'\eV  spa  \fcl'\a^  ||  gry'lm*  ge\frem'e  \  de"  (B.,  591). 
So  we  find  hpxdcre  (B.,  573),  dissyllabic  ;  hine  (B.,  688),  ofer  (B.,  1273), 
monosyllabic  ;  and  many  anomalous  slurs  in  the  thesis  or  anacrusis. 

8.  The  order  of  the  feet  is  free,  varying  with  the  sense.  In  later  poetry, 
as  more  particles  are  used,  the  fuller  thesis  grows  more  common. 

9.  The  Anglo-Saxons  like  to  end  a  sentence  at  the  casnra.  So  Chaucer  and  his  French 
masters  stop  at  the  end  of  the  first  line  of  a  rhyming  couplet.  So  Milton  says  that  "true 
musical  delight"  is  to  be  found  in  having  the  sense  "variously  drawn  out  from  one  veise 
into  another." 

10.  The  two  alliterating  feet  in  the  first  section,  and  the  corresponding  pair  in  the  sec- 
ond section,  are  chief  feet.    Some  read  all  the  rest  as  thesis. 

510,  Irrognlar  sections  are  found  witli  three  feet,  or  two. 

1.  Sections  with  contracted  words  where  the  full  form  would  complete  the 
four  feet. 

heun  huses:=hed'\ha7i^  |  hu\ses^  (B.,  116). 
deddpic  scu)i=^dedd'\pic^  |  seo'\han^  (B.,  1275). 

2.  Sections  with  three  feet  and  a  thesis  : 

prym  \  {^ge)\-frun'\orC  (B.,2). 
Uf  i  edc'  I  {ge)\scebp'  (B.,  97). 
Heyne  finds  in  Beowulf  feet  of  this  kind  with  d-,  xt-,  he-,  for-,  ge-,  of-, 
on-,  to-,purh-.     Similar  sections  with  proclitic  particles  are  found  :  men'  \ 
{ne)\cunn'\ori'  (B.,  50);  {be)\yd'\ldfW  (B.,  566);  Let' \  {se)\heard'W  (B., 
2977) ;  {pe)\him'  \  pxt'  \  pf  (C.,707). 

3.  Sections  with  Proper  Names.     Foreign  Names  are  irregular  : 

Sem'  I  and'  \  Cham'  \  (C,  1551),  and  so  often. 

4.  Sections  with  two  feet  and  a  thesis : 

man  \  {ge)\pe6n   (B.,  25).     Loth'  \  {on)\fdn'  (C,  1938). 

51L.  Rhyme  is  found  occasionally  in  most  Anglo-Saxon  poems.     A  few 
contain  rhyming  passages  of  some  length.     One  has  been  found  which  is 
plainly  a  Task  Poem  to  display  riming  skill.    All  sorts  of  rimes  are  crowded 
together  in  it.     It  has  eighty-seven  verses. 
LINE-RIME. 

Half-rime  :  sar'  |  and'  \  sor'j^e';  ||  siisV  \pjrop'\ed'\on, 

pain     and     sorrow;  sulphur  suffered  they  (C, 75). 


LONG  NARRATIVE  VERSE.  227 

Perfect-rime : 

Single  :  fidh'  \  mdh'  \flit'\ed\  \\fldn'  \  man'  \  hpit'\ed\  [62). 

foul     fiend    fighteth,  darts  the  devil  whetteth  (Rime-song, 
gdst'\d''  \peard'\uni.  ||  HiBfd'\on'  \  glekva!  and  \  dream', 
They  had      light     and      joy  (C, 
Double  :  /rod'jne'  and  |  ^6d'|ne'  ||  fied'er  |  Un'\pe7i^\es\  [12). 

wise       and       good         father    of  Unwen  (Trav.,  114). 
Triple:  /er'ledje'  a7id  |  ?ier'eide".  |1  Fif'\ten\a'  |  stod' — , 
(God)  led  and        saved  (C,  1397). 

FINAL-RIME. 

Half-rime  :  spd'  \  lif  \  spa  j  c?ead',  ||  spa  Mm  \  leof'\re'  \  6id'. 

either  life      or      death,     as  to  him      liefer       be    (Ex., 
37,  20  ;  Crist.,  596,  and  a  riming  passage). 
Perfect-rime : 

Single  :  ne  \forst'\es''  \JnidsM,  ||  ne  \fyr'\es''  bldest', 

no        frost's       rage,       nor     fire's     blast. 
Double:  ne)  haigr\es'  \  ^ryr'|e\  ||  ne)  hrim"\es'  |  c??-yr'|e', 

nor     hail's  fall,       nor    rime's      descent  (Phoenix,  15, 

16  ;  Ex.,  198,  25,  where  see  more). 
Triple:  hlud'\e'  \  hlyn'e\de^;  ||  hledd'\or^  \  dyn'e\de\ 
(The  harp)  loud         sounded  ;       the  sound      dinned  (Rime-song,  28). 

Long  Narrative  Veese. 

512.  The  common  narrative  verse  is  varied  by  occasional  passages  in 
longer  verses.  The  alliteration  and  general  structure  of  the  long  verse  is 
the  same  as  of  the  common  ;  but  the  length  of  the  section  is  six  feet.  Feet 
are  oftenest  added  between  the  two  alliterating  syllables  of  the  first  section, 
and  before  the  alliterating  syllable  of  the  second  section. 

Spa  I  cpsed'  \  snott'\or  on  \  m6d'\e\  \\ 

ge)  sxt'  I  him  \  sund'\or^  set  \  run'\e\  || 
liV  bid  j  se'pe  his  \  tre6p'\e''  ge\heald'\ed\-  || 

ne)  sceal'  \  n&f're  his  \  torn'  to  \  ryce\ne^ 
heorn'  \  of  his  \  hre6st'\um^  d\cy(t\an\ 

nemd'e  he  \  &r'  pa  \  bo/'le'  |  cunn'\e\ 
eorl'  I  mid'  \  eln'\e'  ge\fremm'\an  : 

pet  hid  I  pam'  J)e  him  \  a.r'\e''  \  scc'\ed\ 
fro/'|re'  to  I  Tced'\er^  on  \  heof  on\um\ 

p&r  I  us^  I  eat  seo  |  fmst'nung  \  stond'\ed^ (yVdinAerGx,\\\-\-). 

(a.)  Sometimes  a  section  of  four  feet  is  coupled  with  one  of  six  : 
ge)  pinn'\es^  |  pid'  |  heard  |  paid  \end^  \\  pit\e'  !  pot\iad'  (C.,323). 

(b.)  Four  or  more  alliterative  letters  are  found  oftener  than  in  common 
verse.  Three  seldom  fail.  A  secondary  weak  alliteration  is  some- 
times found  in  one  of  the  sections. 


228  ENGLISH  PROSE  RHYTHM. 

Cc.)  This  verse  is  rather  a  variety  of  the  Common  Narrative  than  another 
kind. 

513.  The  Coniinon  Narrative  is  the  regular  Old  Germanic  verse. 
Rules  1,  2,  3,  4,  0,  7,  of  g  500,  are  rules  of  that  verse.  In  the  5th 
the  Anglo-Saxon  uses  greater  freedom.  It  also  corresponds  with 
the  Old  'N orse /or fii/nta la ^.  In  it  Old  English  alliterating  poems 
are  written. 

///  a  \  aom'cr  \  ses'\on^  ||  whan)  soft'  \  luas   the  \  so?in'|e^ 
/)  shop  e  I  jne   in  \  shroud'\es^  ||  as)  I  a  \  shep'e  \  wer\e'' 
In)  hab'ite  \  as'  an  \  her'e\mite^  ||  un)hol'\i/  of  \  work'\es^ 
Went'  I  wyd'e  \  in'  pis  \  ivorld'  ||  wond'\res'^  to  \  her'\e\ 
Ac)  on  a  \  May'  \  morn  yng\e'  ||  ori)  Mal'\uern'e  \  hull'\es'' 
Me'  hy\fel'  a  \  fer\h/  ||  of)  fair' \i/  me  \  thou^t'\e\ 

Piers  the  Plowman,  1-6. 
(a.)  The  anacrusis  has  a  tendency  to  unite  with  the  following  accented 
syllable,  and  start  an  iambic  or  anapasfic  movement.  The  change  of 
inflection  endings  for  prepositions  and  auxiliaries  has  also  favored  the 
same  movement.  In  Oht  English  it  often  runs  through  the  verses. 
See  Final  perfect-rime,^  511. 


Alliteeative    Peose. 

514.  Some  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  prose  has  a  striking  rhythm,  and  frequent 
aliiteration,  though  not  divided  by  it  into  verses.  Some  of  the  Homilies  of 
^Ifric  are  so  written  (St.  Cudbert).  Parts  of  the  Chronicle  have  mixed 
line-rime  and  alliteration. 

515.  Verses  with  the  same  general  form  as  the  Anglo-Saxon  continued 
to  be  written  in  English  to  the  middle  of  the  fifteenth  century.  Alliteration 
is  still  found  as  an  ornament  of  our  poetry,  and  the  old  dactylic  cadence  runs 
through  all  racy  Anglo-Saxon  English  style. 

So  they  went  |  up  to  the  |  Mountaias  |l  to  be|hoId  the  |  gardens  and  |  orchards, 

The  I  vineyards  and  |  fountains  of  |  water;  II  where  |  also  they  |  drank  and  |  washed  themselves, 

And  did  |  freely  |  eat  of  the  |  vineyards.  |i  Now  there  |  were  on  the  |  tops  of  those  |  Mountains, 

Shepherds  feeding  their  flocks ;  and  they  stood  by  the  highway  side. 

The  pilgrims  therefore  went  to  them,  and  leaning  upon  their  staffs. 

As  is  common  with  weary  pilgrims,  when  they  stand  to  talk  with  any  by  the  way, 

They  asked,  Whose  Delectable  Mountains  are  these? 

And  whose  be  the  sheep,  that  feed  upon  them  ? — Bunyan,  Pilgrim's  Progress. 


INDEX   OF  WORDS. 


For  COMPOUNDS,  look  at  the  simples. 
[The  figures  refer  to  sections.    V  prefixed,  marks  a  root ;  —  prefixed,  marks  a  safBx ;  — 
suffixed,  marks  a  prefix ;  ■<  or  >  Is  placed  between  two  words  when  one  is  derived 
from  the  other,  the  angle  pointing  to  the  derived  word ;  =  means  equivalent  to.'] 


ANGLO-SAXON. 

a,  14, 16,  23. 

— <a,  228, 240,  268. 

— a<«ri,  228,  240,  268. 

—a<jan,  228. 

—a,  246. 

—a,  251. 

a,  24. 

—&,  251. 

«— ,  15,  254. 

&,  129,  264. 

abbudisae,  232,  26S. 

dbufan,  25T,  334. 

dly&tan,  341. 

ac,  260,  262,  397,  465. 

aean,  207. 

ach,  see  ac. 

dcsian,  292. 

dctreo,  266. 

dd&tw.,  258. 

—ad,  228. 

&der,  464. 

adsparing,  260. 

«/,  129. 

agan,  212. 

dgegn,  258. 

Agen,  366. 

agen,  341. 

ligyldan,  297. 

ah,  see  nc. 

Aft,  212. 

ahsie,  35. 

«/i«,  136. 

dhte,  36,  212. 

dhpxder,  136,  391. 

— aJ,  228. 

rtia/i,  207. 

dmang,  341. 

—an,  251,  257. 

an — ,  15. 

an,  254. 

ati^uiuiav,  212. 

— ciH,  247. 

an,  130, 13S,  300,  3SG. 

— ana,  175. 

ancor,  270. 

a»id-,  15,  254,  328,  330. 

and,  138,  1.39,  262, 394,  4G.X 

andlong,  2.TO,  329,  330. 

and  >i(i  /)4  te«,  405. 

nndapar-ian,  15,  297 ;  — !/, 

dnedgf,  206. 

dn^-g'ed,  200. 

dnhende,  26G. 

<ino,  262. 


Aprelis,  38. 
ac/a-sf,  229,  243, 
(ir/M?,  229. 
(irmw,  297. 
^irtsf,  233. 
<irica.s,  229. 
arn<yrnan. 
aron,  213. 
drste/,  229, 235. 
ass-a,  — e,  268. 
dstellan,  189. 
<J7',  22S. 
dpa,  254. 
dpacan,  267. 
rf/^rfer,  130, 4&1. 
<5/J27i«,  136, 389. 
axe,  35. 

a;,  14, 16,  23. 

a>,  24. 

^,  100. 

/&,  129,  203. 

&—,  254. 

arrcr,  228. 

xdeling,  228, 235. 

jEdelpxdfing,  23T. 

«/— ,  129,  254. 

/g/re,  251. 

scft,  331. 

a?/ia»,  252. 

a'/temest,  12Y. 

a/fcr,  15, 120, 129,  255,  328,  331, 

472, 473. 
xftera,  127. 
a!fterpeardes,'2.'S\. 
xg,  wgrii,  82, 228. 
&g—,  254  ;    —hpd,  —hpxder. 

etc.,  130,  390,  391,  403. 
^qder,  130, 403. 
x'l—,  259. 
i8?c,  136, 392. 
lelf,  — CMj  208. 
xlmeahtig,  206. 
i8»i«,  14.5. 

ignif/,  130,  387, 489. 
ar,  120,  259, 332, 472. 
!iresf,  127, 129. 
.rrn,  229. 

•T^  1.5,  2.'>4, 328, 333. 
.rt—,  257. 

xt/oran,  333. 

fc,  27,  .30. 
bd,  141. 
bacan,  158, 191,207. 


6<Jd<6Maw. 

bal{d)sam,  50,  270. 

hannan,  208. 

6d«,  230. 

bxc-ere,  —estre,  2G8,  228. 

bxclinga,  251. 

bxd<^biadan. 

bxftan,  257,  334. 

6^r,  230. 

— 6^rf,  229,  243. 

6a;r/6<,  260. 

biern-et,  — ung,  233. 

6e<6i. 

bedcnian,  297. 

6eadM,  32,  90,  223. 

beaduldc,  233. 

bedh<Cbugan. 

beuh,  230. 

ficaZd,  30. 

bea^M,  30, 32,  36 ;  —ffcs,  242. 

6eam,  230, 234, 208. 

bedtan,  208.  , 

bewftan,  257. 

bebeodan,  297. 

becyme,  299. 

he-edstan,  —foran,  —geonua'.r, 

—healfe,  etc.,  334. 
6ejrc?i,  141,  490. 
be-keonan,  — hindan,  —neodan, 

257,  334. 
6eZ.(7an,  203,  290. 
bertan,  203. 
bend,  228. 
fceo,  100. 
bebdan,  206. 
be6gan<^biigan. 
beOn,   177-182,   213,   280,    208, 

415. 
beoraU'^beran. 
beard,  230. 
beorgan,  191,  204. 
beornan,  204. 
bcpl^ctc,  189. 

6«r-an,  200,  319 ;  — <-,  228. 
bcre,  230. 
bergan:^benrgan. 
bernan,  24S. 
bcrning,  233. 
hemtan,  192,  202. 
bexdrgian,  297. 
b&sWan,  258. 
6f fra,  ftctsf,  129. 
be^te,  189. 
betpcohs  (a;),  — tpeoman,  203, 

329,  334. 
!  bctpuxt,  49. 


230 


INDEX  OF  WORDS. 


ftf!  f)ani  pr,  4G6. 

H,  bi,  be,  15,  4S,  25J,  25T  ;  com- 
pounds nt  S'ii. 

btdan,  205,  315. 

biddan,  lya. 

bq-Cbl. 

billut,  35. 

bindan,  192,  201. 

binnan,  257,  334. 

fciVfo^ — bergan. 

birst,  35. 

bixceoji,  43 ;  — JifV,  235. 

bit,  230. 

bitan,  205. 

?/?ter,  230. 

fcfter,  242. 

bldcerii,  229. 

blandan,  20S. 

bldtan,  208. 

bklpan,  208. 

6;a;d,  269. 

fc?e«,  35,  208. 

biican,  205. 

/j;2(/«,  321. 

/;/mrf,  104, 105. 

l.Hnnan,  201. 

tt?s«,  35. 

Ulodredd,  260. 

?;;o  ma,  234. 

t;6<an,  208. 

hliipan,  208. 

i(5c<fca<'an. 

toe,  90, 100, 209. 

iacere,  228. 

fcojra,  32,  230. 

logan,  bod,  224. 

bogen<Cbv,gan. 

bohte,  189. 

&o7»iam<[6ann«n. 

ldn<Cjbogan. 

bdsovi,  50. 

6oa;,  270. 

hrsegdan,  brwdan,  202. 

brcat<Cbrcdtan. 

bredtmi,  208. 

fcrecan,  199,  200. 

bredan,  202,  224. 

bregdan,  202, 220,  224. 

brengan,  209, 210. 

breodan,  206. 

breomu,  11. 

brebtan,  206. 

breopan,  200. 

brimo,  11. 

bringan,  201. 

l/rinnan,  201,  204. 

feoc,  91, 100. 

/)roccn<t6rcca7!. 

'jrocen'^ftrMcan. 

b>  orfer,  41,  87,  100,  228,  232  : 
—Add,  229. 

brohtc<Jbringan. 

hrohtes,  160. 

brucan,  206,  300. 

few,  366,  463. 

fcw/an,  257,  334. 

b'Ugan,  206. 

hiiqian,  biigav,  bvi'an,  bfij>ian, 
b^'in,  b&e'n,  221,  224. 

bulluca,  236. 

h/r-gr,  100, 101. 

i-fiton,  45,  25T,  334,  303,  431,  405, 

MtjM,  360 ;  /bd,  489. 

In/cgaJi,  21 1. 

t^<7a7i,  248. 

?)7/^ei«,  232. 

hyrd'CfifTan. 


byre,  84, 86. 
bgrnaU'Cbeoiiian. 

c,  27,  28. 
— c— ,  250. 
can,  176,  212, 437. 
carcern,  229. 

rarJ— ,  — ca«,  —fugol,  etc.,  £03. 
(■<}«e>"n,  208. 
cat,  208. 
rca//,  82. 

•car-ful,  —leds,  243,  200. 
'tfd.**  35. 

ceaster,'53,  90, 101, 270. 
i^c^c,  189. 

■ennan,  cende,  183, 189. 
■cor/an,  204. 
(•fo.s'rtw,  197,  200,  2S0. 
ccopan,  206. 
rM/rt?!,,  205,  297. 
cild,   child,   34,   41,    82,   208  ; 

—hAd,  235 :  —uc,  228,  241. 
cZd,  100. 
el^nheort,  200. 
cleofan,  200. 
ci?y,  209. 
e?i/aw,  205. 
cliviban,  201. 
clingan,  201. 
(•^(•pte,  189. 
clynnan,  188. 
ei?/f  c,  98. 
cnapan,  208. 
cw«aan,  199. 
cneodan,  206. 
cnyssan,  188. 
co?w,  35. 
coreM<ce6son. 
gecoren{n)e,  119, 107. 
corfen<Cceorfa7i. 
crupan,  208. 
cra/i,  229,  209. 
creda,  270. 
crebdan,  200. 
crebpan,  191,  200. 
cmwan,  201. 
cringan,  (cp),201. 
cr^pp,  194. 
CM,  91, 100. 
c?H  297. 

CMrfe,  37, 170,  212. 
cwrfes,  166. 
cuman,  191,  200. 
—cund,  229,  241. 
cimnan,  212. 
cur  011, 35, 197. 
cpSdon,  197. 
cpealdc,  189. 
cpealm,  234. 
cpeartern,  229. 
cpeccan,  209. 
cpeden<Ccpedan. 
cpedan,  192, 199, 897. 
c/>e7i  te<Cspeccan. 
cpelan,  200. 
cpellan,  209. 
ge-cpeman,  297. 
c;)e?l,  228,  208. 
cpiman,  200. 
cpincan,  201. 
f/'isi,  35. 

c/>owi  gefered,  458. 
cycen,  230. 
cycene,  239. 
cydde<j^jdan,  297. 
cijmen<^cu7nan. 
cj/n,  101,229. 


geeynd,  235. 
cynerlcc,  229,  235. 
cyning,  208 ;  — dom,  229. 
r^/rde,  298. 
cyrnel,  236. 
eyssan,  188. 
f^sf,  35. 
.■j/stc,  85, 189. 

d,  27,  29. 

— d,  nonn,  228. 

— d,  comp.,  255. 

— d,  verb,  455. 

da/an,  207. 

ge-dafcnad,  299. 

dar=:dcar. 

d^d,  90,231. 

ge-d&de<idbn. 

dseg,  71,  229 ;  — CS,  251. 

dwgeslge,  265. 

d«<5rf,  228,  234. 

de4/<dw/aji. 

dedrjf,  {h)<jdugan. 

dear,  176,  212, 439. 

dearnunga,  251. 

(fe?/aw,  203. 

deman,  29T. 

de?>i  — a.  — e«d,  — er-?,  232. 

fire-denrrt>don. 

deofolcund,  229,  241. 

debg<Cde&gan. 

debpe,  251. 

deor,  41. 

deorcunga,  251. 

deor/an,  204. 

— der,  228, 252,  255. 

derian,  188, 297. 

dfdc,  ({j)<jibn. 

dippan,  188. 

— di,  228. 

dohte<Cdugan. 

dbhtor,  100 ;  — rte,  93. 

—dbm,  229. 

dbmern,  239. 

dora,  160, 168, 177,  213,  220,  297, 

406. 
dorste<^durran. 
dragan,  207. 
drmic<jdrincan. 
drdf,  230. 
drMan,  208,  218. 
dr&fan,  248. 
dreahte,  189. 
dreccan,  209. 
drencan,  248. 
drencte,  189. 
drebgan,  206. 
drebpan,  206. 
drebrd<^dr&dan. 
drebsan,  206. 
drepan,  191, 199,  220. 
drif-an,  —t,  193, 205. 
drinc,  231. 

drinc-an,  —p,  194,  201. 
dropen<jlrepan. 
druncen,  455. 
druron<jirebsan. 
drp,  100. 
d?i/an,  206. 
dugan,  212. 
dwn,  101. 
d?/r(J,  93. 

durran,  176,  212, 439. 
dpealde-ddpellan. 
dpelan,  200. 
dpellan,  209. 
dpinan,  205. 


INDEX  OF  WORDS. 


231 


dyde<:jidn. 
dypte,  189. 
dyrstig,  4&t. 

e,  14, 16,  23. 

— e<a,  22S. 

— e<a,  verb,  IW. 

—e<CJa,  22S,  243,  2G5. 

—e<i,  265. 

— e<ja,  verb,  169. 

— e,  ?,  2.51. 

— e<a?i,  22S,  240,  263. 

cd,  100. 

f  ((,  oh,  263. 

ed;,  254, 262,  335, 394, 463. 

edde=edde.  edde,  124. 

f  (J(/3, 95. 

ed'jHcalf,  266. 

e«Ata,  13S,  139. 

ml,  33, 136, 251, 259,  895, 490. 

cd  Id,  263. 

caW,  124;  — /«c?cr,  265. 

ealles,  251. 

eallunga,  251. 

caine  /'ejr,  251. 

eulofxt,  265. 

ea?sp<i,  463, 4T3. 

fat  /)<i,  48J. 

far,  269. 

eardigean,  23. 

f<ice,  98. 

earm,  33. 

mrn<2r?iaji. 

ef(rt<^eom. 

easi,  251 ;  —an,  252 ;  —emest, 

129;  —erne,  223. 
e«;?,  263. 
e:te,  139. 

fJ — ,  15,  254 ;  —m'pian,  15. 
—ed,  22S,  243. 
erff/rt,  262. 
etel,  101. 
e/(?n,  15,  259;   —peorcan,  267; 

— IScan,  299. 
<•//)«,  263. 
f/f,  15. 
e'/csa,  223. 
ehte,  35, 183. 
e/— ,  259. 
—el,  223. 
— eJc,  228. 
Elising,  223. 

ei/es,  129,  262, 464;  —hpd,  136. 
— ci8,  228. 
cm6e,  328, 360. 
—en,  228, 263,  455. 
—ena,  244. 
e/ide,  269. 

—ende,  223, 4-45, 4G0. 
endleofan,  138. 
iirefirJ-c,  86, 233 ;  —isc,  228,  238. 

241. 
code,  37,  213,  225. 
con;,  168, 177,  213,  225,  966,  298, 

314,  416, 451. 
c()rnad<Cjrnan. 
c'/rn6sHice,  463. 
top,  130,  .^66. 
toper,  132,  490. 
eopic,  130,  366. 
—er,  compar.,  122-129,  255. 
—er,  228. 
—ere,  228,  268. 
—erne,  228,  245. 
—eru,  22S. 
— es,  gen.,  62,  251. 


—es,  verb,  166,  225. 
—es,  223. 
— e«a,  223. 
—esl,  228. 
esot,  41. 

—estre,  223, 263. 
— ef,  228. 
etan,  192, 189. 
—ettan,  250. 

/,  27,  30, 41. 
fdcenstxf,  229. 
fdhaii^fon. 
/aM<Jindan. 
fangan,  216. 
/aran,  191,  207,  445. 
/ar6M,  228. 
fxder,  228,  232. 
MgoiK^fcbn. 
f&r,  37. 

— /a;s(,  229, 243. 

fxaten,  269. 

/»«,  73. 

fedh<ifeon. 

feald,  209. 

— /eaJtZ,  143,  229, 245. 

fmldan,  203. 

/eaide,  139,  209. 

fealk<^felgan. 

fmllan,l^\. 

fealupe,  117. 

fed(pa),  136,  395,  439. 

feax,  36. 

fecean'C.fecian,  34. 

fecgan,  199. 

fed(ed),  190. 

/edeis,  223,  232. 

feg-an,  — can,  247. 

/eia,  129, 136,  251. 

/eJd,  269. 

feldd,  93. 

/etrf,  36. 

felgan,  203. 

/clkn,  209. 

fSng^^fon. 

fed,  37. 

/(•w/j,  100. 

feohan,  199. 

feohtan,  204. 

feofUldc,  229. 

feoK^feallan. 

feul,  25. 

fedld<Cfealdan. 

fediK^fcuhmi,  199,  247,  297. 

fe6n<C.feogaii,  weak. 

/cond,  87,  100. 

/cor,  124, 129,  251,  254,  259,  336 

/eorran,  252. 

/coper,  47, 13S-|-. 

/eran,  248,  297. 

/e8«,  fet<i/6n. 

fidel-ere,  —cstre,  263. 

/rferw,  100. 

/t/-,  37, 133+. 

/ifidan,  201.221. 

firds,  100,  2C8. 

fitan,  199. 

^a;cn,  232,  263. 

'llt'dK^  ill  old  a. 
'jleo<iaiiyih'on,  206. 
pohaH>jlcon,  192,  200. 
jUfitan,  206. 
jkdp<Jlopan. 
Jlitan,  205. 
Jli6nz:zjlcdn. 


flopan,  208. 

Jlugon,  206. 

;%an,  248. 

Vodor,  232. 

/oic,  101. 

/on,  208,  216,  224,  247. 

/o7id<^Jindan. 

for,  15,  254,  255,  323,  337. 

for—,  15,  254,  255;  —beodan, 
297 ;  —gifan,  297 ;  —gif end- 
lie,  242  ;  — gitan,  23 ;  — ieo- 
saH,  197  ;  — standan,  299  ; 
— spore  n ,  455 ;  —pyrnan,  297 . 

/oran,  252,  257,  328. 

fordd,  93. 

ford,  15, 129. 

/ore,  15, 129,  254,  255,  323,  337. 

fore-ritiel,  232. 

fore-peard,  129. 

/or  hpam,  260. 

/or  intingan,  337. 

fornua,  126 ;  — csf,  127. 

/or  /lam  ^e,  466. 

/or  py,  466. 

/of,  41,  84,  100. 

fox,  268. 

/ram,  15,  254,  338,  409. 

fr&,  254,  255. 

frmtpe,  100. 

frxtpian,  224. 

fremian,  297. 

fremman,  183. 

freogaii^frcdn,  47. 

freogan^reon,  weak<C/rt. 

freond,  87,  100 ;  —rMen,  229, 
235;  — scii>e,  229. 

frebsan,  197. 

fretan,  199. 

/rl,  115. 

fricgan,  199,  215. 

frtdan  (Grein)  ? 

frignan,  202,  217. 

frinan,  202,  224. 

fringan,  35,  201. 

from^ram,  15. 

ge-frugen  (i),  199. 

fruma,  129, 140. 

fugol,  79 ;  carl-fugol,  263. 

/m'i!,  15,  259 ;  -fytlan,  267. 

—/Mi,  229,  243. 

fundon<^flndan. 

furdor,  129. 

— /ws,  242. 

/.(/Wc,  139. 

fylgian,  297. 

fylstan,  297. 

/(/rra,  129. 

fys-an,  — rfc,  189. 

JC,  23,  84,  503. 

— g— ,  250. 

/;<?,  298,  41.5. 

gcf<igifa7i. 

galan,  207. 

ffdn,  208,  213,  225,  247,  286,  445. 

gandra,  268. 

gangan,  208,  213,  214, 216. 

gdrledc,  266. 

<7<4«,  268. 

,<7i8rf,  208. 

.^a-sf,  85;  —crn,  229. 

'<7*(,  208. 

</c—    15,  254,  262,  463;  — ftr/i- 

rfrit,  77,   100  ;   -cynd,   235  ; 

— /tem/c,259,339;  — /t|)(J,l.V); 

— hpxder,  391 ;  — ^/>ric,  136  ; 

— Zfc,  299 ;    — Jice,  463,  473  ; 


232 


INDEX  OF  WOKDS. 


—Itt-nes,  2115;  —Wlian,  249; 
—  loiict,  1!,'j9  ;  —  l///e(t,  29S  ; 
— viicUan,  249 ;  — momj,  25S ; 
— nedan,  37  ;  — siTirf,  2C9  ; 
— noht,  190  ;  — sprcccn,  455  ; 
— Kpeo)~u,  100;  —xpeostnt,9'ii, 
100 ;  —tinibnt,  100 ;  —pinfjd, 
235;  —/)0/if,  228,234;  — j!)!(/if, 
409;  — ;n'/i<,  235;  —pit,  29S. 
For  other  words  iu  ge—, 
drop  jre — ,  aud  look  for  the 
rest. 

t;e,  24,  23,  3",  130,  3CG. 

gid,  2C.1,  399. 

(jea/'C;tifan. 

tjealp<^gilpan. 

gcdn,  15. 

gedp'Cgeopan. 

'gcdr.  2S ;  —dxg,  229,  239. 

gedrd,  2S,  251. 

gearpc,  100,  454. 

(;eaf,  28. 

gcatpa]i<l_geatpe,  100. 

j;eflf)!,  15. 

gen,  15. 

(7e«a,  251. 

i7c«f7,213. 

genoli,  490. 

(7W,  252. 

(/eoc,  28. 

gevgutt,  28,  235. 

jreoi,  28. 

gmnd,  15,  28, 133,  255,  32S,  340. 

geondan,  257. 

geong,  28, 124,  228. 

geong<igangan. 

geongan,  201. 

geongliiig,  22S,  236. 

gcbpan,  206. 

gevrran,  204. 

gcotan,  206. 

ffer,  28. 

T/«.«(e,  28,  261,  399. 

(jeta,  251. 

(7i«,  225. 

<7!eian,  203. 

gieng,  213. 

J)/,  260,  262,  469,  475. 

gifan  (ie,  eo,  io,  y),  £8, 199,  297. 

qiftd,  100. 

gifu,  88,  228,  231. 

gildan  (ie,  y),  203,  297. 

^z7?a«,  203. 

gilpan  (ie,  y),  203. 

giltan,  weak. 

ginan,  205. 

ginrutn,  201. 

giong<^gangan. 

gipan,  199. 

gxrran:=georran. 

girpan,  224. 

<7?s«,  28. 

f/J^  28,  465. 

<72'^  pron.,  130,  287,  360. 

gitan  (ie,  y),  199. 

g!dd<^glidan.  I 

,9te(/,106, 12,'). 

gleoman,  229. 

glidan,  205. 

gnagan,  207. 

gnidan,  205. 

pod,  129 ;  —«<;«,  228. 

god-cund,    229  ;    —lean,   229  ; 

— iic,  229,  266;  — Si^eJ,  266. 
goldfxt,  31.S. 
goldsmid,  266. 


rjniigan^^gnngan. 

J/<)x,'  37,  9l',  lull,  208. 

Guta)i,  238. 

grafan,  207. 

graitt'ii,  2'2-t. 

grdidan,  to  cry,  shotild  be  per 

haps  in  208. 
O-r^rf/fir,  228, 315. 
;;ra-/,  230. 
f7;-a.',s,  51. 
gr^tan,  208. 
ijrciman,  200. 
grcdtan,  206. 
grc(')p<^grdpan. 
grettc,  35, 189. 
grimman,  201. 
grindan,  201. 
(jringan,  201. 
grtpan,  205. 
grUan,  205. 
yrqf,  230. 
gropan,  191,  208. 
grund,  230. 
grytvian,  weak. 
gryrehp'd,  265. 
gulpon<C.gilpan. 
guma,  41,  268. 
gum-cyn,   265  ;    — «iaH,.  208  : 

—pegn,  268. 
gurron<^girrati. 
i/.V+,  see  £/2+. 
S^dcn,  228,  208. 
gyidev,  244,  313. 
n//mell/st,  235. 
f/(/rdc,  189. 
W<,  262. 

7i,  14,  27,  28,  31,  S3,  35+. 

— /t,  228. 

/ia,  /i(i,  263. 

habban,  37, 168,  222. 

— /i^d,  229. 

hcddan,  208. 

halettan,  250. 

/((Jm,  71, 101,251. 

hdm-peard,  229, 251 ;  —peardes, 

251. 
/ta?i«,  95,  231,  208. 
/ia?i(?,  92,  228,  207;  —gepeorc, 

266 ;  —sellan,  267. 
hangan,  203,  216,  224. 
/Ki.9, 50,  57. 
/:atan,  208,  286. 
lidtian,  249. 
/.•a<*p,  219. 

/(a-ftftc,  108, 169,  415,  410,  453. 
/ta-Zdc ,  168,  »17. 
/ia-Z^e,  189. 
/(a-Ze,  86. 
Aa)i)/,  209. 
li£fit<Ji(»i. 
h^tan,  249. 
/(ig<Jt,  235. 
/(e,  24, 130. 
hedfan,  20S. 

heafod,  41,  79 ;  — nian,  260. 
hedge,  251. 
/(Wft,  118, 124. 
healdan,  208. 
Aea?/,  147,  394. 
healfne  pone,  489. 
healp<ihelpan. 

hedri^heddj-pp.  to  exalt  (weak). 
—heard,  229,  243. 
liearp-erc,  — csfrc,  268. 
heauod,  30. 
hedpan,  208. 


hebban,  207. 

/le/erf,  207. 

hefi(jtpme,  229. 

heqian,  188. 

/ie/if,  159,  218. 

/it'Zaw,  200. 

helian,  188. 

hclpan,  32, 203,  297. 

Aen,  208. 

Iienep,  41. 

heng'ijiangan,  hCin. 

heo,  37, 130. 

/(CO  d^gTB,  251. 

heof<^Iieufan. 

henfen,  234. 

hcbld<^iealdan. 

heonan,  252. 

heorcnian,  297. 

Aeorfc,  209. 

he6p<CJiedpan. 

her,  252. 

/ierc,  269. 

lierian,  224. 

herpan,  224. 

hest<Chdn. 

hi,  300. 

hicgan  (y),  211. 

/ii'der,  15,  262z^hider,  126. 

ffic— ,  503. 

hlg—hii,  23. 

/u'l;,  203. 

hindan,  252,  255. 

hindema,  120. 

hinder,  129. 

/«'rd«,  S3,  231. 

Atred,  229,  235. 

/MS,  367. 

/«?,  130,  237,  360. 

hladan,  207. 

hldf-dige,  — ord,  263. 

hleahtor,  33,  57. 

hledpan,  208. 

hledt<Chleotan. 

hlehhan  (i,  y)  (6,  a),  207. 

hleodrede,  298. 

hleun<lilcbpan,  warm. 

hlebtan,  206. 

/(/esf,  35. 

hliccan,  199. 

hlidan,  205. 

hltgan,  weak. 

hlimman,  201. 

hlopan,  208. 

hluton,  206. 

hli/sb&re,  243. 

hlystan,  297. 

hndtan,  208. 

hnedpan,  208. 

hnigan,  205,  297. 

hnipan,  199. 

hnitan,  205. 

/logodc,  211,  222. 

/io/t,  100. 

//on,  208,  216,  224. 

hoppestre,  268. 

horsern,  229,  239. 

/««?/,  37. 

hrcide,  454. 

hrdn<^hrtnan. 

hrdp,  100. 

hrscd,  125. 

hreds-dhrcbsan. 

hreddan,  188, 139. 

hreodan,  hreoden,  200. 

hrebfan,  206. 

hrebaan,  197,  206. 

hrebpan,  206. 


INDEX  OF  WOEDS. 


iOO 


hripan,  20S. 

hrinari,  205,  293. 

hrindan,  201. 

liropan,  20S. 

hroren<^hreomn. 

hrnroti<^h  reusan . 

hn'(Jan,  •J06. 

hrijman,  243. 

Im,  252,  260,  262,  397,  46S,  4C9. 

/u?,  Interj.,  263. 

hudan,  hitdon,  20C. 

—hfigu,  136. 

/i?t?w,  135. 

hulpon<C.helpan. 

hund,  13S+. 

hunt-ad,  —bd,  — 9i«rf,  203. 

httsincle,  228. 

7u/,si,  87. 

/!/>('«,  135,  37T,  382,  390. 

—hpd,  136,  390. 

hpanan,  252,  260,  409. 

hpanne,  252,  469. 

hpxder,  126,  135,  260,  37S,  4G4, 

469. 
hpabr,  252,  260,  469. 
hpxt,  125. 

/'/>a;<,  135,  263,  377,  382. 
hpxt  godes,  312. 
lipxtMifju,  136,  390. 
hpelan,  200. 
hpeor/an,  204. 
lipetan,  199. 
hpeUtdn,  266. 
A/'i,  136,  252,  260. 
/(^Wer,  252,  260,  262,  409. 
/(/-i/e,  262. 

hptlum,  251, 202, 472. 
liptium,  205. 
/'/"/«,  135,  395. 
Iipopan,  208. 
lipurfi)n<Jipeorfan. 
hpijlc,  135,  378,  382. 
hgcgan,  211,  222. 
/ii/^e,  86 ;  —seeaft,  229,  235. 
Iii/ldan,  248. 
hynan,  248. 
/i^ran,  183, 189,  297. 
hyrcnian,  2.50. 
ge-hyrned,  243. 
rie-hprsum^ian,  297. 
/lyrte,  1S9. 
hyse-cild,  268. 

r,  23. 

^  24. 

— <i,  228,  240,  26S. 

— <ja,  228. 

ia^zea,  33. 

— la,  246,  247. 

m— ,  603 

1(1,  261. 

?(J,  2.5. 

?>,  41, 130,  300. 

idxges,  251. 

We»,  101. 

-id,  164. 

i^=e<J,  e5,  25. 

—ieyaja,  228. 

— ijr,  223,  243. 

—ige,  268. 

— i>i,  228. 

— ?"/i?,  228,  243. 

in,  1.5,  2.54,  S2S,  341. 

inr,  incur,  irtrit,  130, 132. 

—ing  (verbal),  228, 460. 

—ing,  228,  237. 

in  midduin,  258. 


innan,  252,  257,  328,  329,  341. 

inn^,  252. 

imiema,  126. 

innera,  129. 

innian,  57. 

i7i«o,  341. 

inpeardltce,  15. 

ioz^eo,  33. 

!"o— ,  503. 

o,  25. 

irnan,  204. 
is<C.eo'ni. 
—isc,  228,  241. 

sgicel,  266. 
»t— ,  503. 
»(,  252,  390. 
n(i-,  228. 
j«H(/,  28. 

;,  27,  29,  33,  35. 
— ?<ra,  228. 
Id,  260,  263,  397. 
—Idc,  229. 
;«ra/!,  191, 208. 
U'(d<lidan. 
hhjon<iHf(ian. 
lagxiflbd,  265. 

lamb,  82,  268. 

lamp<C}impan. 

land,  101 ;  — WiflH,  260;  — sceap, 

229,  235 ;  —scipe,  38,  235. 
?anr;,  124. 
langad,  297. 
/igt-an,  250. 

libce-crieft,  — cyn,  — dbm,  235. 
l^dan,  248. 
lxg<^licgan. 
l&hte<CiScan. 
l^nan,  297. 
;^mn,  292. 
/a;.s,  259,  342,  303. 
Ixssa,  127, 129. 
ll&ites,  166. 
tef,  128. 
?a;taii  («),  208. 
Ixtema,  120. 
Iedg<jie6gan,  38. 
leahan,  207. 
ic^iw,  207. 
lednian,  297. 
— JcAv,  229,  243,  400. 

iecca??,  209. 
Jec^an,  188,  209,  248. 
i^rf«,  189,  209, 224. 
legde,  189. 
lendenu,  100. 
ii'^Wa?!,  206. 
fcfirfc,  86. 
/.'<V,  297. 
/f-';/-(ira,20fl. 
/('"/■((rf,  222. 
/CO /•(>»,  228,232. 
l/o'iaii,  192, 194,  20C. 
Iciilitf,  189,  209. 
/«•(•-/<•,  159,  208,  218. 
lebmd,  77. 
JerV?,  159,  208,  218. 
for-lebsan,  197,  20C. 
lebt,  208. 
J^an,  192. 
lAt,  208. 
/ctan,  208. 
h/^han,  222. 
^w-,  269. 
I  —tic,  133, 136,  229, 241, 242,  302 


—Itce,  251. 

ge-lice  and,  473. 

ficode,  299. 

Iicga7i  {licgean),  102,  199,  248, 

286. 
Itdan,  205. 
iWoJi,  197. 
lid,  37. 
;trfa?i.,  205. 
It/an,  205. 
?!yian,  222. 
liget'ij.icgan,  193. 
+!iAan,  205, 297. 
ij7i'e,  270. 
limpan,  201. 
— ^Mig',  228. 
b-linna7i,  201. 
litlian,  249. 
litlum,  251. 
Id/sum,  242. 
lomp<^limpan. 
litcan,  206. 
Tiz/ede,  38. 

bif-ian,  183 ;  —igmii,  36. 
hif-sum,  242  ;  —tpmc,  229,  242. 
Lundenisc,  241. 
lunge,  97. 
lunrwn<^linnan. 
lAs,  91, 100. 
iw.sf,  269 ;  —h&re,  229. 
Jwian,  206. 
lyccan  (Grein)  ? 
gel^fan,  297. 
iyste.  290. 
/!/«,  129, 136, 3C5. 
Zytef,  129. 
i|;'sife,  189. 
?^a;fc,  189. 

«?,  27,  30, 33,  35,  44. 

— wi^ma,  228. 

— »Ha<TOan,  228. 

»!<?,  129,  2.51. 

niacian,  286. 

mddm,  maddvm,  290. 

mdg-a,  —e,  208. 

magan,  212. 

mdgon,  212. 

niagu,  231. 

«ia?i,  84,   ino,    101,  136,  389  ; 

—  cild,    268  ;     —cyn,    229  ; 

— cpelere,  266 ;  — csjic,  268. 
ge-man,  212. 
— warn,  229. 
manig,    136,    395,    489,    400 ; 

—feald,  229,  266. 
mdra,  129. 
mdpan,  208. 
in£deti-cild,  —fsemme,  — wm/i, 

269;  — 7!(i(f,229. 
ma7(7, 176,  212,  436. 
TOiSi/,  268. 
mSgdcn,  228,  236. 
ui^i/rf,  228. 

mxgenheard,  229,  243. 
m&grlSiden,  229. 
— «!jgi,  229. 
mSrsian,  250. 
TOi^««,  129. 
ge-mMan,  290. 
?»c,  24,  37,  130,  366. 
mcahte,  176,  212. 
i/icarft,  33,  SO,  263. 
wco,  130,  360. 
niedema,  120. 
nielcan,  203. 
mcUan,  203. 


23i 


INDEX  OF  WORDS. 


tnemicn,  2GS. 

vieodo,  38. 

meoliu;,  32,  50. 

inenrtian,  204. 

■mcople,  230. 

merdC;  189. 

inere,  38. 

«i«r-e,  — itjc,  — ihe,  2C3. 

vierige,  26S. 

vietati,  199. 

meter,  50. 

7)ie<te,  189. 

7H6  pincp,  297. 

«!!«!«,  129,  394,  490. 

i>«c?e  wni,  251. 

iniclian,  249. 

miclum,  251. 

«iii7, 15,  254,  255,  328,  343,  472. 

wtWd,  22S. 

tnidde,  114. 

viid-dxg,  206. 

viidlen,  239. 

viidan,  205. 

viiyan,  205. 

nuVtie,  212. 

mildheortnes,  2H5. 

Cie-miltsian,  297. 

iiitn,  130, 132,  367,  490. 

7)!4;i  sc,  4S9. 

i«w,  15,  254,  250. 

niisdon,  267. 

r?uW,  269. 

mddar,  100. 

Monandxg,  205. 
iiinrgcn,  100. 
i?i«.s<c,  30, 176,  212. 
vwtan,  176,  212, 433. 
7K«rf,  24,  37. 
mxigan  (a),  212. 
niunec,  — en,  263. 
viiurdra,  22S. 
TJiiis,  90, 100. 
rH7/«rf,  22S. 
mijnte,  189. 
fit^rc,  232. 

n,  27,  28,  29,  35, 42-51. 

n—,  254. 

— n— ,  250. 

n<mi,  228. 

n<ni,  2-28. 

— ?ia,  175,  223. 

na,  261,  399,  400. 

nabban,  45. 

—narf,  22S. 

nagan,  212. 

iidhte,  212. 

7i<iZa;s,  201,  400. 

Jiani,  166. 

llama,  228. 

vicJnie,  171. 

ndmon,  166. 

— JMWi,  252. 

?i(in,  45,  261,  387. 

ge-nupan,  203. 

luipiht,  261,  389,  400, 

Ji^dZ,  228,  232. 

niih,  344. 

n^ni'ar,  136,  387. 

nxrende,  213. 

ri^gre  /)««,  475. 

nxs,  45, 213,  261. 

— ?id,  455. 

ne,  261,  262,  397,  399,  400. 

— w,  251. 

n«— ,  254. 


ne,  463. 

?w<lA,  124,  251,  259,  344. 

ht'-nfah,  212. 

iiialibi'n;  266. 

iKuhhnml,  2.')9. 

n,'(//i/,-!V(^',  299. 

■Ill-all tfn,  251. 

nciiUes,  201. 

ne/tii,  252. 

ne<ir,  344. 

tiearpe,  251. 

neden,  251. 

ge-nedan,  37. 

»u;/-a,  — c,  268. 

'«<■//!(;,  259,  345. 

w/t,  nehst,  344. 

nellan=.nillan. 

nemde,  189,  286. 

iiemltce,  468. 

nemne,  35,  259,  431. 

neodan,  252,  257,  346. 

neotan,  206,  300. 

ner-e,  — ede,  — i/rtw,  — zaw,  — ?V. 

— jV/aw,  — igean,  28,  36,  160. 

165, 183,  247. 
—>{<■«,  228. 
ge-nesan,  199. 
wcse,  261, 399. 
ne^eie,  232. 
JM'rfe,  129. 
nidema,  126. 
nider,  15,  25.5. 
nigan  (Greiu)  ? 
nigon,  13S+. 
mhtcgale,  267. 
niht-hrxfen,  266. 
nillan,  212. 
ni77i,  172,  298. 
niman,  173,  200,  216. 
nimanrw;  173. 
niine,  164, 170. 
nimende,  173. 
nibtan,  206. 
nipan,  205. 
nitan  (e,  V),  212. 
MO,  261. 
rio/tf,  261,  400. 
nohte<^iu;ah,  212. 

noft,  270. 

norrf,  129;  —erjic,  245;  —pcard, 

245. 
—JIM,  228. 

HM,  n;/,  24,  252,  262,  400,  472. 
/Mtme/i,  17.0. 
nymde,  431. 
nytan,  212. 

o,  23. 

— o<«.,  265. 

— o<«;a,  228. 

— o<-y7<i,  228. 

6,24. 

—d<aja,  228,  247. 

o— ,  254. 

— oc,  228. 

6c<[a<?an. 

—od,  228. 

orf,  15,  2.54,  328,  347,  472. 

—nd,  228. 

odde,  35,  262,  404. 

— orfp,  245. 

Oder,  37, 12G,  136, 140, 142. 

odf/pan,  297. 

o./^,  15,  254,  329,  343,  472. 

o/er,  15, 126,  252,  255,  328,  349. 


nferflevpan,  207. 
olfrian,  35. 
u/t,  251. 
o/-puhte,  297. 
— o«,  228. 

oleccan,  297. 

on<;iMinan. 

ort,  15,  254,  257,  32S,  341,  S.'iO; 
—hxc,  251 ;  biitun,  257,  328, 
341 ;  —dred,  298 ;  —ef{e)n, 
253,  341,  473;  —furan,  32S, 
341 ;  —/(>/!,  299 ;  —gciin,  251 : 
— (je^n,  253,  328,  341 ;  —qc- 
vwng,  258,  323,  341  ;  —in- 
nan,  257,  841 ;  —lihan,  297 
— liifte,  258  ;  — mang,  341 
472 ;  — middan,  341 ;  — sun 
dron,  251 ;  —it fan,  257,  341 
— M^pan,257,328,341;  — pa-i/, 
251. 

—on,  247. 

owd,  262. 

orm,  262,  465. 

ono  MM ;  mw  gif,  475. 

or—,  15,  254. 

—or,  228,  242, 

ortgeard,  266. 

ostre,  270. 

—of,  228. 

oxa,  97. 

Oxenuford,  265. 

p,  27,  30. 
palant,  270. 
persuc,  270. 
;«'s«oi,  43,  270. 
plii.nia,  41. 
prOfian,  280. 

r,  27,  29. 

—r<ra,  228. 

-^<ri,  252. 

— ra,  compar.,  120,  255. 

/•n.Aui,  207. 
mii<jrinnan. 
rdpincle,  236. 
J"d.s<^r4.san. 
r^rfaw,  208,  297,  300. 
r^de?.9,  228. 
—1-Men,  229. 
}%-a,  — e,  263. 
r^/>te,  189. 
r^ran,  243. 
r;gsd«,  189. 
reahte<jreccan. 
rec,  85. 

j-ecan,  189,  210. 
reccan,  209. 
-red  (»),  229. 
red  {se)<yedrd. 
redestrc,  263. 
regol,  270. 
reocan,  206. 
reodan,  206. 
rcofan,  200. 
rebn-Creopon,  203. 
reiVd,  159,  203. 
rebtmu  206. 
rcsf?,  189. 
— rice,  229. 

ri<!e,  83, 101,  adj.,  12S. 
ridan,  205. 
riViie,  139. 
rihtpis,  229,  242. 
-|-ri'mj;an,  201. 


INDEX  OF  WORDS. 


235 


rinnan,  51, 201. 
ripan,  205. 
rUan,  205. 
ge-rtsed,  299. 
r6hte<Crecan. 
Jiomdne,  S6. 
Rumdnisc,  241. 
Jiompare,  229,  233. 
rdpati,  208. 

s,  2r,  29. 

— s— ,  250. 

sfwan,  20T. 

fsagian,  222. 

S(J/i<[si/ia?!. 

sai,  269. 

sam,  254,  262,  4G3,  4G4. 

earn,  129. 

«(iw— ,  254,  259. 

same,  133. 

samod,  255,  202,  350, 403. 

iiang<^idngan. 

sang,  230. 

sang-ere,  —estre,  232,  2G8. 

sdpan,  203. 

K&pon,  197. 

s^,  24, 100. 

s^can,  210. 

Sicce,  88. 

sxcgean,  209. 

«^t/,  2C9. 

Sigde,  3T,  209,  224. 

SiBSrde,  209,  224. 

sibgmi,  19T. 

sa;i(f,  36. 

swt,  199,  248,  29S. 

Sxternesdxg,  265. 

scddan,  208. 
scafan,  207. 
sc<in,  38,  205. 
scdnan,  208. 
scaparip-sceapan. 
scaicen,  207. 
sc&nan,  weak. 
«ca;r<sceraji. 
sceacan,  207. 
sceddan,  20S. 
sceadan,  207. 
—sceaft,  229. 
«eeai,  212,415,441. 
sc«ai<,  166, 167. 
8C€c«n<^«ct7ia«. 
sceamode,  297. 
ge-sceapan,  280. 
acedtan,  208. 
sceod^sMrtrfan. 
sce6de<^f)cedn. 
sceolde,  176, 441. 
sceon,  weak. 
Hceoran,  200. 
sceorp,  269. 
sceort,  VIA. 
sceortltce,  251. 
sceotan,  206. 
sceppan,  207. 
sceran,  200. 
sccrian,  183. 
scilde,  189. 
Rclnan,  205. 
xciolde,  212. 
«c?()/ion<;«cJ)ian. 
Hcip,  70. 
—Hcipe,  229. 
K(oc<j<cacan. 
nrop,  230. 
*'.M-c/i,  200. 


scridoTKCjeridan. 
scridan,  205. 
scridend{n)e,  119. 
scrifan,  205. 
•scrijicttJi,  201. 
SCI/fan,  191,  200. 
sctdayi,  212. 
scpde<isceon. 
sctjle,  169. 
scyppan,  207. 
se,  133, 134,  3G3+. 
s«  /)e  piiie,  4T5. 
— sc,  261. 
se,  182. 
se(Jc,  38. 

sea/j,  199. 

seaZd,  190. 

sealdes,  166. 

sealjk,  165. 

sealfode,  160,  247. 

sealm,  33. 

sedmestre,  268. 

.sec(c)ciM,  37, 45,  210. 

seceaM,  188. 

.9ee(7a?i,  209,  297, 397. 

«e/(e,  114. 

.se«,  128. 

seldum,  251. 

.se?«,  86. 

seJcJi,  234. 

se?/,  131, 133,  366,  376. 

seHan,  188, 189,  209. 

S(?ncan,  caus.  of  siiican. 

sende,  189. 

sc«ti(ed),190. 

seo,  pupil,  100. 

.seo>she,  133,  068+. 

SCO,  see,  199. 

.SCO,  verb,  205,  200. 

SCO,  be,  169. 

se6can<C.sucan. 

seodan,  206. 

seofun,  32, 138-f . 

sco/ie,  199. 

scoJi,  197, 199,  286. 

scon,  220,  205,  206. 

s!Prede<^scrpan. 

nerpan,  224. 

se<,  190. 

scied,  190. 

set^,  228,  232. 

s««an,  188, 189,  248. 

ge-scttan,  286. 

sepen,  197. 

spp-<c,  — rf«,  189. 

St,  169,  213. 

sid—sed,  133. 

tsican,  205. 

st:^,  37, 128,  259,  472. 

slddan,  472. 

stdema,  126. 

sJc,  213. 

sigan,  205. 

sigcrice,  229. 

sihan,  205. 

silfren,  228. 

sm— ,  254,  250. 

«?»,  131, 132,  367,  490. 

sincan,  201 . 

siiul{on),  213. 

singan,  201. 

sitnian,  201. 

sinneaktcs,  251. 

smi,  213. 

s?7?,  109. 

xi«a)?,  199,  2iS. 


SJj;,  138+. 

slagen  (m^  e),  207. 

slxpan  {a,  e),  203. 

slSpern,  229. 

sJea,  192. 

sleahe,  207. 

si«<in,  33, 192, 197,  207,  247. 

sltdan,  205. 

slidan,  205. 

sltfan,  205. 

slipan,  205. 

sZitow,  205. 

sl6g{on),  35, 197,  207. 

sW/i,  35. 

slupan,  206. 

smeddon<jinieagdon<Csr)iean, 

smeagan,  247. 

smedn,  247. 

smeocan,  206. 

+sni,j<f,  229. 

smitan,  205. 

smugan,  206. 

snadan,  snod,  ?  B.,  1944. 

sua/)  Tipi?,  266. 

sniean,  205. 

snidan,  205. 

S7iipd,  weak,  366. 

.socen<;sMcan. 

sorf,  37. 

sodlice,  261,  463. 

so/fc,  37,  124. 

ge-soht,  190. 

soAte,  35,  36, 189, 210. 

son«,  24,  251,  472. 

soTics,  251. 

stmjr,  230. 

spanan,  207. 

■tpannan,  208. 

specan<;sprecaw. 

Sj;eon<;.sj>an?zan. 

upeornan,  204. 

sperehealf,  269. 

spiitfe,  189. 

spindlhealf,  268. 

npinnan,  201. 

splpan,  205. 

npupan,  208. 

sprxcan,  199. 

sprecan,  199. 

spreeol,  242. 

springan,  201 . 

spyrian,  188. 

s«,  57. 

sfiiA  (gy^stigan. 

utandan,  207,  216, 280. 

stdn-ig,  —iht,  243. 

stdnpeal,  260. 

stapan,  207. 

st&defxHt,  229. 

+s<«/,  229. 

atxfcrxft,  229. 

st&nen,  243. 

st&niht,  228. 

stealdan,  208. 

stealde<jiitellan. 

stelan,  200. 

atellan,  209. 

stemn,  35. 

sieni,  36. 

8«/ifsf,  35. 

steorfan,  204. 

steppan,  207. 

stepte,  .'i5. 

stigan,  205. 

sfJ/irf,  205. 

/)Jj7fic,  189. 

stillan,  297. 


236 


INDEX  OF  WOKDS. 


stincai},  201. 

stingan,  201. 

stintan,  201. 

stdd,  207,  298. 

stonde,  207. 

stop,  207. 

stn'ulaii^  20S. 

stra7uj,  V2i. 

stranijltce,  251. 

atreccan,  200. 

stredan,  202. 

streffdan,  202. 

Stre'hU',  209. 

sfrenj/rf,  235. 

strenge,  114, 124. 

Strengtt,  235. 

Strtcan,  205. 

strtdan,  205. 

strfidan,  20(). 

stupian,  297. 

stijcccmMum,  229,  251. 

s^?/i<e,  1S9. 

s<i/nf<.stan<fo)i. 

sCf;'ra«,  297. 

siican,  206. 

svdoii,  107. 

siidemcst,  129. 

si'iderne,  245. 

si'idman,  235. 

Ki'idpcard,  245. 

st'iijan,  206. 

sug6dc<j^pifTta7K 

sum,  136,  148,  3S3. 

— si(7)i,  229,  242. 

s«m(;  /)a,  489. 

swnw!^'  (f^J,  251. 

sumord,  93. 

sirniorlkcan,  250. 

simu,  92,  228. 

supan,  206. 

.s/jf't,  134,  252,  2C2,  380,  430,  434, 

403,  473,  476. 
spd-hpa-spd,  136,  382,  475. 
s/'fi  /i/'((r  .s/ia,  471. 
*/'«  hpider  spd,  471. 
fi/xi  ^/>?7c  s/Jffl,  136,  3S2, 
.s;'«  s/ia,  287. 
•spdpdn,  208. 
spd/an,  208. 
sp^fan,  weak. 
spefan,  199. 
s/'f.^n,  228. 
speger,  268. 
spelan,  200. 
spelgan,  203,  220, 
spellan,  203. 
speltan,  203. 
.s/^eor,  268. 
speorcan,  204. 
speorfan,  204. 
speostor,  100,  232. 
uperian,  207. 
8ptan<jtpigian,  224. 
splcan,  205. 
«/>«;?,  37, 123. 
spifan,  205. 
spigian,  224. 
spjic  (j/),  133,  375. 
«p?fce,  262,  380,  392, 473, 463. 
npimman,  201. 
spinean,  201. 
spitidan,  201. 
spingan,  201. 
npingel,  — c,  233. 
upogan,  208. 
sp{igian=f>pigian. 
spyic:^KpiV:. 


iip=zste^:zscu. 
Kill/,  290. 
.tiiUan,  ISS. 
.s}/Hn«,  209,  297. 
■yngian,  260. 
m/?i.'(;=,s(()rf. 
sgrpan,  224. 

«,  27,  34,  41,  56. 
— (,  228. 
—t<tpa,  130. 
—to,  126,  228. 
ffl,  95. 
tacan,  207. 
tdli'Citihan. 
talian,  222. 
—iama,  126,  223. 
— f«)-a,  126,  228. 
— toto,  126,  228. 
figca»»,  248,  292. 
f;g/i?p,  189. 

teaW«,  209. 

team.,  230. 

?C(ir,  269. 

fcia,  251. 

be-teldan,  203. 

<cHan,  188, 189,  209,  222,  286. 

—teme,  229. 

^en,  138+. 

—ttdda,  140. 

tcon<^tihan. 

teon,  206,  247. 

<(?o«,  weak. 

— ier,  255. 

?emm,  200. 

^«?an,  299. 

(irf(«n,  297. 

— ;?ir,  245. 

ii'(7e>(.,  205. 

— tiqoda,  140. 

ii/iart,  205,  220. 

tihd<^tihan. 

til,  259,  351. 

timher,  50. 

timpan,  270. 

<o,  15, 254, 328, 329, 352, 463, 472. 

473. 
«— ,  254. 
to-dsege,  251. 
to-edcan,  251,  268,  352. 
tu-ealdre,  251. 
to-foran,  257,  352. 
tn-gxdere,  251. 
to-gegtwa,  258, 350. 
to-middes,  251,  258,  329,  352. 
to-nihtc,  251. 
to-peard,  259,  352. 
to-pidere,  255,  352. 

?orf,  37,  41,  86,100. 
tof/a,  230. 
togen-Ctcnn,  200. 
<r«rf,  199,  298. 
tredan,  199. 
<reo;>,  100. 
treopcgn,  229. 
treopian,  297. 
trcomian,  297. 
<rwes  (ic,  ?/),  199. 
ge-trppe,  297. 
— <i«,  228. 
<?«{7e,  197,  206. 
t«n.7e,  95,  231. 
«?«r/,  100,  269. 
fpa,  138+. 


^yjcjreM,  13S+. 
?;'c)/,  138+. 
tpentig,  138+. 
?/>if?,  269. 
?/'i/'a,  145. 
?i//irf,  200. 
^//t<,  230. 
—(•pme,  229,  242. 
;//M,  138+. 
— <^MC,  138+. 

/b,  rf,  10, 14, 27,  29,  194. 

— /),  rf,  194,  228. 

j6«,  252,  262,  406,  472. 

/6«  /ireo  forman,  4S9. 

pah<^picgan. 

pdh  (g)<ipilMn. 

panan,  252,  262. 

parices,  251. 

pancian,  297. 

pand<^pindan,  201. 

panne,  252. 

/)ar/,  212,  442. 

/)(is  TOMie,  489. 

p^h<Cpihan. 

p^m  odrum  prim,  489. 

/)^r,  252,  262,  397,  471,  475. 

p!ersc<iperscan. 

pxs,  252,  262,  323. 

/)a;«,  133, 134,  287,  363-580,  434, 

468,  473,  477. 
/»«<  is,  468. 
/)a;«c,  468. 
/le,  rel.,  134,  380. 
/)?,  conj.,  262,  404. 
j6e,  24,  37,  306. 
pe,  262. 

peah<^picgan. 
pedh,  262,  476. 
pedh<^peon. 
peahte<C  peccan. 
pearf,  212, 442. 
/(CO,  37, 130,  366. 
peccan,  209. 
pegon<l  picgan, 
pen,  37. 

penc{e)an,  209,  216, 
penden.  262. 
penian,  297. 
ge-peoht,  228. 
/)eoM,  206,  220. 
peon-Cpeopan. 
peos,  374. 
peotan,  206. 

/)eo;>,  —a,  — e,  —en,  203. 
pebpan  {y,  e,  i),  weak. 
peop-boren,  266 ;  — /w'ic/,  235. 
peopian,  297. 
— rfer,  228. 
perscan,  202. 
j&es,  133,  374. 
picg{e)an,  199. 
/)?yer,  252,  202,  471. 
pigen,  199. 
pi'gnen,  208. 
/ft'ftar?,  205, 220. 
/)tn,  37, 132. 
pincan,  211. 
pindan,  201. 
/)in<7,  287. 
pingan,  201. 
pidn=:pe6n,  20C. 
/)!«,  133,  374. 
/>isse,  35. 
pohte<^  pencan. 
ponne,  262,  466,  473. 
/ior/<f,  212. 


IXDEX  OF  WOKDS. 


237 


prapan,  208. 

pred,  100. 

preMes<^preagan. 

predgan  >  predn,  preupie,  35, 

weak. 
pred<iprt. 
preotan,  206. 
preMpm,  13S,  141,  2CG. 
predp<iprdpan. 
preopan,  206. 
j6ri,  41,13S,  139,141. 
prifijldan,  2+S. 
pritidan=printan . 
pHngan,  201. 
printan,  201. 
prlpa,  145. 
pruen<^pperan. 
pu,  24, 130. 
puhte<^pyncaii. 
punder,  50. 
punian,  1S8. 
puren<^Pperan. 
pur/an,  212. 

/)Mr/i,  15,  254, 32S,  329,  353, 409. 
^!W,  252. 
pusend,  138+. 
ppeahany>Ppcdn,  207. 
ppegen<C  ppcd  n. 
ppehd<Q)peahan. 
ppeorhteme,  229. 
ppeoton<CppUan. 
pperan,  200,  224. 
ppinge,  201. 
ppltan,  205. 
pp6h{g)<Cppedn. 
pp(yren<^  pperan. 
py,  133,  262,  3T4,  466,  4T3. 
/)^  tes  /)«■,  4T7. 
pyder,  471. 
^j/ic,  133,  375. 
pollen,  268. 
^i/i?c,  136. 
]b)/«ic,  133,  375. 
pynmn,  211,  210,  2SC. 
pyringds,  238. 
/>2/sJtc,  136. 
pppan^peopan. 

«,  14, 22,  23, 32,  35,  50. 

— M  (0),  228,  205. 

-^,  228. 

—  <M,  228. 

— M<<*.  228,  240. 

— M<wj(J,  223. 

?«,  24,  32. 

—rte,  228. 

— «d,  228. 

<irfe,37,212. 

«/an,  252,257,  354. 

«/an€,  252. 

-ul,  228. 

— Mm,  251 . 

«n,  15,  242, 254,  400,  456. 

nnc,  130,  287, 3G6. 

uncer,  132. 

nncl^m,  266. 

wnder,  15, 126,  255,  328,  355. 

undernewtan,  257,  355. 

xmdernm&l,  229,  239. 

— Mnsr,  228, 4G0. 

fje-unnan,  212,  297. 

untreopd,  205. 

impls,  205. 

lyj,  15,  254. 

vppan,  257,  328,  350. 

—Mr,  228. 

j"(rc,  130, 132. 


?/«,  130,  3C6. 

fiser,  37, 130, 132. 

userne,  490. 

j/.s-ic,  130,  300. 

ut,  15,  254  ;  —an,  252,  257,  329, 

357;  — c,  252;  -cwa,  126. 
titan,  205,  224, 443. 
I'ltepeard,  129. 
utian,  57. 
M<on=MtoJi. 

^,  10, 14,  27,  30, 31,  35,  2,  a. 

—p<Cva,  22S. 

—p<i'jd,  228. 

—pa<p,  228. 

;>d,  263,  293. 

paean,  207. 

pacian,  248. 

/>adan,  207. 

pdgon<C  pegan. 

walla,  225. 

/"an — ,  259. 

pajia,  107,  259,  32S,  358,  393. 
— /^are,  80,  101,  229. 
pa.ican^=paxan,  207. 
pdt<^pUan. 

pdune-Cpapan,  208,  224,  d. 
pxdla,  107. 
pxf<Cpefan. 
p£n,  37. 

pitpned     (p^pcn—,     p&p — ^) 
—man,  —cild,  etc.,  268,  269, 
parr,  125. 

/>^re,  169<;/'6sa»!. 
p3e8<C,pemn,  168,  417. 
pxstm,  234 ;  -bd're,  243. 
/>««-«,  — e,  228. 
/le,  37, 130,  300. 
;><?«,  263. 

pe{a)hte<^  pecca  n. 
pealcan,  208. 
pealdan,  208,  300. 
peallan,  208. 

—peard,  229,  245,  259,  359. 
peard<^  pe&rdan. 
pearm,  228. 
pearmian,  249. 
pearnung,  22S. 
peaxan,  207,  298. 
pebb-a,  — e,  —ere,  — es^re,  268. 
peccan,  189,  209. 
pedldc,  229. 
/ifi/an,  199. 
;>ejr  ?(i,  263. 
pegan,  199. 
pehte<Cpeccan. 
pel,  251,  259,  263,  298. 
peldi'm,  267. 
pelerds,  100. 
/"e^'gr,  243. 
pemde,  1S9. 
/Jemk',  298. 
peolc-C  pealcan. 
peop<^pepan. 
peor,  129. 
peorc{e)an,  211. 
peordan,  204,  286,  415. 
peorpan,  204. 
peoruldd,  93. 
pepan,  208. 
percan-<C  pyrcan. 
pergan,  45. 
per-polf,  266. 

/'esan,  197, 109,  213,  225,  286. 
/»e«f,  251 :  — au,  252 ;  — cni€8f, 
129 ;  ;»^.3«(;)J,  269. 


pexp<Cpeaxan. 

pic,  101. 

pican,  205. 

picc-a,  — e,  268. 

;>ide,  251. 

pidgil,  38. 

;>z4  15,  254,  255,  328,  329,  359, 

compounds,    — veftan,  —fo- 

ran,  etc.,  257,  328,  329,  359; 

— sacam,  297;  — standan,  299 ; 

— pinnan,  299. 
pider,  15,  255. 
;>i/,  268 ;  —freond,  268;  — ZtJc, 

233 ;  -He,  241 ;  —man,  229, 

266;  —pegn,  2GS. 
pl/estre,  268. 
ptgan,  205. 
pigsmid,  229,  232. 
(ge)piht,  136,  235, 269,  389,400. 
/>?7e  298. 

/>i"»fl!H,  167,  212,  415, 440. 
pimman,  268. 
/^irt,  269. 
pindan,  201. 
;n'iie,  SO,  100,  232. 
pinnan,  201. 
pintrd,  93. 
pircan,  211. 
— pjs,  229,  242. 
pisdom,  235. 
/"jsse,  35,  212. 
/)is«e,  35,  212,  298. 
pjY,  287. 
pitan,  212. 
;>ito)i,  205,  212. 
pitledHt,  235. 
pltnian,  250. 
pitodltce,  261,  463. 
plitan,  pldt,  205. 
/>6c<;/>acan. 
poldes,  176. 
pop,  57. 
/jord,  73. 

porden<!_peordan. 
por{u)hte<^pyrcan. 
priBC<^precan. 
prxcca,  107. 
priece,  88. 
predk<^predn. 
precan,  199. 
preccan,  209. 
prehte<^  preccan. 
preon,  206,  220. 
prtdan,  205. 
pridim,  36. 
pr'utan,  205. 
prlhan,  205,  220. 
pringan,  201. 
pritan,  205. 
pritboc,  265. 
prolan,  208. 
— ;)M,  228. 

puiinp-e,  35  ;  — a,  268. 
/'M?/,  70,  2(;s. 
pundrum,  251. 
ptinian,  2S6. 
/'?/  rpe<;  peorpan. 
piit-an,  — on,  — itJi,  170,  224. 
/)(///,  268. 
pilUan=pillan. 
pgn,  91,231. 
pi/iixum,  229. 
pyrcan,  211,  224,  248. 
/>?/rrfc,  243. 
pyrman,  248, 249. 
pyrnan,  297. 
p^rs,  129. 


')  '">  Q 
Zoo 


IXDKX  OF  WOKDS. 


p,  14,  23,  32. 

P,  24,  3-'. 

■ffcan,  189. 

^rf,  37,124. 

nfel,  129. 

phte<J/ean. 

i/lc,  133, 13G,  3T5. 

yldan,  248. 

ymftCc),  15,  2,'>1,  202,  32S, 

—iitan,  257,  300. 
vmn,  43. 
Uppan,  67,  24S. 
ynnan,  248. 

^ta«,  24S. 

GOTHIC. 

a,  IS. 

—re,  71,  72,  228. 

— a<— a  or  — fca,  251. 

— a>A.-Sax.  —e,  262. 

— «— ,  267. 

af  ipf),  254,  348. 

afar  (after),  331. 

aftumista,  127. 

ttr7!S,  228. 

a'htdu,  139. 

ahtudan,  123. 

aj,  18,  33. 

—a?',  160. 

ut,  IS,  24, 15S,  159. 

Mnlif,  139. 

<h'jis,  139. 

air  {tir),  332. 

aip-pau,  202. 

</i!',  254,  261. 

d/us,  22S. 

ak,  262. 

ai-rs,  228. 

a»,  262. 

ana  (o?i),  254,  341. 

atid,  254, 330,  347. 

awsis,  declined,  89. 

anpara — ,  120. 

— arja,  228. 

at  imt),  254,  333. 

au,  18,  33. 

— OHt-,  211. 

«t«,  18,  25, 93, 158, 159. 

link  {edc),  254,  336. 

azgo,  51. 

6,19. 
—ba,  251. 

baira{da),  219,  228.  ' 
fcaZ^s,  36. 
fcajid,  158. 
handi,  228. 
fcarw,  228. 
barnisks,  228. 
bihian,  213. 
W  ?(,_</,  158. 
6?,  254,  334. 
biugan,  158. 
bliiids,  declined,  107. 
bokareis,  228. 
brothar,  228. 
biigum,  158. 
bundum,  158. 

</,  19. 
— </rt,  219. 
(?(id,  108. 
rff(<7S,  229. 
dairnan,  212. 
dawrsta,  212. 


(/<i»f/itw,  228. 

(?irfa,  inflected,  168. 

d(s— ,  254. 

— dr^  252. 

dw  (to),  254,  352. 

e,  18,  24,  26,  71, 158, 100. 
ei,  18, 158. 

300;  CM,  130. 

f,  19. 
f elder  22S, 

./f«>m  (/cor),  129, 251, 254, 336, 
falpK,  229. 
faran,  24S. 
farjan,  248. 
./■aw.)-  (/or),  254,  337. 
/awra  (/orp),  129,  254,  337. 
Jidvor,  47, 139. 
fimf,  139. 
.frrt— ,  2.54. 
fram,  254. 
friima,  120. 
— /<,  194. 
/uiis,  229. 

i7,19. 

(I'J^nig),  19,  28. 
f/a— ,  254. 
gaggan,  213. 
galan,  248. 
firards,  34. 

ifj6-a,  — (ii,  —OS,  23,  228;  de- 
clined, 88. 
gbljan,  248. 
gredags,  228. 
gudjviassus,  228. 

/«,  19,  33. 

hdihdit,  159. 

hdihald,  169. 

huim,  24. 

hairdeis,  declined,  83,  231. 

hditada,  219. 

hditan,  159. 

haldan,  159. 

/idjwi,  declined,  95. 

handu,  228. 

hardiis,  110, 229. 

harjis,  declined,  83. 

hdulis,  118. 

/ier,  252. 

kepro,  2i>2. 

/lidre,  252. 

hindaiia,  252. 

hinduma,  126. 

/ii're,  13.5. 

hvadre,  71, 252. 

Iwdiva,  252. 

ftvara,  252. 

/(var,  252. 

/iuas,  135. 

'/(ua/),  — r5,  252. 

hvapara,  120. 

/ii-e,  71. 

/ifo,  135. 

?,  IS,  33, 158. 
?><}?■,  159. 
?6a,  262. 
!d— ,  254. 
idd/a,  213. 
igqar,  132. 
iqq-ara,  — js,  130. 
!;«,  130. 

it,  declined,  130, 
ikei,  381. 


?'w,  inflected,  213. 
hi,  2f)4,  341. 
innanaj  252. 
/.v,  declined,  130. 
ix,  verb,  213. 
iVa,  declined,  130. 
?■/»,  262. 
fif,  18, 158. 
ny),  254;  — a,  .S56. 
— !^(l,228;  i>«!,3Sl. 
■izvar,  132. 
jzy-ara,  —is,  130. 

i,  19. 
;a,  2C1. 
}a6dt,  202. 
jak,  202. 
j(i?,  261. 
jdim,  133,  255. 
jM(;(7,  28. 
juks,  228. 
jw^,  130. 
jJMi,  130. 
jupan,  202. 

^■,  19. 

—k,  130. 

fa«td.s,  229. 

Ajirtt,  declined,  83. 

kunpa,'lVi. 

kvens,  228. 

1,10. 
—1, 230. 
Idian,  1.59. 
Idikan,  159. 
;<i?A;s,  229. 
Idildik,  159. 
i(it7o,  159. 
ich7d«,  159. 
lasivs,  129. 
—l&us,  229. 
— iei&s,  229. 
?eton,  159. 
libaini,  228. 

w,  19. 

md-ists,  —iza,  123. 

wiajw,  229. 

marei,  38. 

tTieina,  130. 

meins,  132. 

— rae;,  229. 

«H"(/J!(l,  114. 

mfdjw,  114,  22S. 

mi'fc,  130. 

WMS,  130. 

niinsa — ,  miitsb,  2.54. 

m?/)  (mW),  254,  343. 

munps,  24,  22S. 

n,  19. 

»iam,  inflected,  106. 

namb,  228. 

nasida,  inflected,  168. 

nasjp{a)s,  175. 

)i<isja,  inflected,  105. 

nas-jan,  —ida,  —idedtim,  100. 

«^  «iu,  201. 

nehv  (nedh),  344. 

nehva,  251. 

n&mjdu,  inflected,  171. 

»i^/)ia,  228. 

ni,  254. 

niw,  inflected,  174. 

nima,  inflected,  105. 

niman,  175. 


INDEX  OF  WOKDS. 


239 


nimand{a)s,  175. 
nimdu,  intlecleil,  1T(\ 
iiiujis,  139. 
ninn,  139. 
mimans,  1T5. 

6, 18, 24,  95, 15S,  159. 
—6,  -251. 
— fV,  1-23. 
— Oxt,  1"23. 

;?,  19,  30. 

i-aitrus,  decliued,  ICl. 

r,  19,  33. 

r  air  op,  159. 
razn,  '2,i'i. 
redan,  159. 
—reiks,  22'J. 

«,  19, 123. 

— .s<— f/i<— f,  100. 

nu,  decliucil,  lui. 

«i!— , '24 

saihx,  lii9. 

aailivan,  I'Ji. 

SK/ty-H,  —(id,  — c'f'c/iun,  IGO. 

srtifct),  iDflccled,  1U5. 

Kama,  133,  254. 

samap,  262,  350. 

6««,  158. 

natjan,  24S. 

*e,  132. 

sei'rw,  132. 

fsetwn,  158. 

*(,  decliued,  130. 

gibun,  35, 139. 

Hibuntehwul,  139. 

s?;att,  213. 

s(76a,  131. 

silubr,  26. 

Miibreins,  22S. 

smd,  213. 

sinteiiis,  254. 

sftan,  158, 24S. 

«i«s,  228. 

so,  decliued,  103. 

—St,  194. 

xtdUtdut,  159. 

»W«tan,  169. 

Hteinaha,  228. 

fiumis,  declined,  93,  228. 

syo/i,  262. 

Hvaihra,  268. 

81-^,  71,  2.52. 

svileiks,  133. 

^19. 

—t<r-tha,  lOfl. 

tai/t,  — MTO,  1.58. 

taihun,  lii9. 

tdikns,  248. 

tehund,  139. 

teihan,  158,  248. 

W,  351. 

<imr?cm,  50. 

(>-i»a,  25,  35. 

— fs,  105. 

n-cii,  139  ;  —tiajllS,  139. 

a-afi/,  139;  —tekwtd,  130. 

/),  19. 

— /),194. 

jbad<>7',252. 

/>ai>/i  (/iJO-ft),  254,  353, 


pan,  verb,  158. 

pan,  252. 

yiaude,  262. 

/»ar,  252. 

pata,  decliued,  103. 

patei,  468. 

papro,  252. 

j6aif/i,  202. 

pe,  71. 

beiiia,  130. 

/lezjis,  132. 

penum,  158. 

j6jX-,  130. 

/>!.s,  130. 

/))-C!S,  139  ;  —tiajus,  ISO. 

prijataihun,  lo'J. 

/((J,  decliued,  13'J. 

j!)i«e?,  381. 

puhtm,  228. 

pusurodi,  139. 

!t,  18,  23, 15S. 

— w— ,  106. 

«,  IS. 

ufar  (ofcr),  252,  340. 

itfta,  251. 

ugkar,  132. 

ur/k-ara,  — w,  130. 

— m/i,  133. 

un — ,  254. 

rindar,  355. 

uns,  — aia,  — is,  130. 

unsar,  132. 

unpa,  uot  fouud,  212. 

«.s— ,  254. 

ut,  63,  254. 

litana,  252,  357. 

r,19. 

vahsjan,  158. 

ctli,  263. 

taita,  251. 

yair,  229. 

vairps,  229 

ytiif ,  158. 

valdan,  300. 

vans,  358. 

uarm,  228. 

— vas^—os,  1C5. 

w^*,  228. 

veis,  130. 

uVJda,  212. 

viljdu,  212. 

K2<,  130. 

r!(wm,  158. 

vij)ra,  254,  359. 

iv/28,  — um,  158. 

»M?/8,  declined,  70. 

OLD  SAXON. 

—a,  251,252. 
^i— ,  254. 
d=e,  170. 
(w,  262. 
ddar,  12C. 
«/,  264. 
a//or,  331. 
ahto,  139. 
071,  254. 
and,  2.54. 
a/«/j,  262. 
angimanri,  341 . 
a»is(,  decliued,  89. 
ant,  2.54. 

ant-sib^inta,  —tehunta, 
lifta,  139. 


af,  254  ;  ftajw'ttm,  339. 

6>/,  30. 

6e,  254. 

6?,  254. 

bist,  213. 

bium,  213. 

6h>wf,  declined,  107. 

fcoct,  91. 

— (i=  — tTi,  194. 
dajr,  229. 
darnungo,  251. 
rfoiJ,  213. 

e=&,  170. 
f.^,  262. 
f  J«!/,  139. 
en,  139. 
eo,  254. 
ettha,  202. 

/<&,  30. 
/ar,  254. 
fer,  254. 
/?/,  139. 
fiwar,  139. 
/ora,  254. 
formo,  126. 
fravi,  254. 
— /«7,  229. 
/urt,  254. 

.Or^iw,  213. 

i/e,  130. 

ncba,  decliued,  88. 

'fjt,  130. 

gi — ,  254. 

ginerid,  175. 

git,  130. 

(at)handum,  339. 
Aawo,  declined,  95. 
/ier,  252. 
hcrod,  252. 
/jirdi,  declined,  83. 
hinan,  252. 
huanan,  252. 
/(«ar,  252. 
huarod,  252. 
/itM«,  135. 
/t?««,  135. 
hiuker,  12G. 
/iitnd,  139. 

—i<i—itha,  ICG. 

m,  261. 

!<!,  declined,  130. 

Wwr,  254. 

!'?w,130. 

inca, 132. 

MUJrt,  254. 

)>«,  130. 

?s,  inflected,  213. 

iu,  130. 

jwa,  132. 

iwar,  130. 

ia,  262. 
jac,  202. 

— irn/^  229, 
kunni,  229. 

— ?os,  229. 

—mahal,  229. 


2-iO 


INDEX  OF  WOIIDS. 


—vian,  220. 
tnero,  123. 
mest,  123. 
ml,  130. 
i)inl,  254. 

9n?l-(»«H-),  123, 130. 
?»4»,  130, 132. 
mis — ,  2!>4. 

»!««!,  inflected,  IfiO. 

iidmi,  iullectcd,  171. 

7ie,  254. 

neriila,  inflected,  IGS. 

ner-jan,  —ida,  — idun,  ICO. 

nerju,  inflected,  1G5. 

ni,  254. 

nigun,  139. 

nim,  inflected,  174. 

nivian,  175. 

nimand,  175. 

mmannias,  175. 

wf??!e,  inflected,  170. 

nimti,  inflected,  105. 

numan,  175. 

— o,  251. 
f)6/j«r,  252. 
oA,-,  254. 
—or,  123. 
— osf,  123. 

radur,  23. 

s,  213. 

nam—,  254. 

sawa,  133,  254. 

—scaft,  229. 

scawb-da,  — d?*w,  160. 

scawvn,  160 ;  inflected,  165. 

— scejii,  229. 

se,  132. 

sehs,  139. 

settiaii,  24S. 

s?a,  137. 

sibun,  139. 

{anVjsibunta,  139. 

S!)i— ,  254. 

«tn,  132. 

SJ'nrf,  213. 

sinduTn,  213. 

sittian,  248. 

8j«nM,  declined,  93. 

te,  254. 
te— ,  254. 
fe/ian,  139. 
^A  254. 
tuelif,  139. 
(ant)tueUfta,  139. 
txiena,  139. 
tnentig,  139. 

-fA=— d,194. 

thanan,  252. 

?/iar,  — od,  252. 

i/ifs-f ,  — M,  declined,  133. 

«  4,130. 

//u"c,130. 

?/u)i,  130. 

f/«<,  declined,  133. 

tlioh,  262. 

r/iWa,  1.S9. 

tkritig,  139. 

//(M,  declined,  130. 

r/u(r/i,  254. 


thusnndii),  139. 

— 1«,  neuter,  72. 
tmibi,  254,  360. 
MM—,  254. 

unc,  130. 
ttncff,  132. 
uiicer,  — o,  130. 
undar,  355. 
MJi?,  254. 
«p,  254. 
I'lS,  130. 
««r,  132. 
)>«■/•,  130. 
in,  254. 

ice,  203. 

u-e,  pronoun,  130. 

tver,  229. 

ivSt,  inflected,  212. 

wt,  130. 

zvid,  254. 

— Mtsi,  229. 

icit,  130. 

H'?t//,  declined,  70. 

wunnia,  231. 

OLD  FKIESIC. 

6>/,  30. 

blind,  declension,  107. 

—e<_—ja,  S3. 

fisk,  declined,  70. 

hona,  declined,  95. 
hornar,  82. 
hica,  hwet,  135. 

jef,  202. 

^'eyc,  declined,  S8. 

kindera,  S2. 

«e(7,  declined,  SO. 

sunu,  declined,  93. 

tigbsta^  140. 

—u,  neuter,  72. 

OLD  NORSE. 

—a,  adv.,  251. 
a,  254. 
ae,  254. 
a/,  254. 
aiid,  254. 
annar,  126. 
— ar,  123. 
— (W?,  123. 
«.sf,  declined,  89. 
at,  254. 
d^frt,  1,39. 
aiik,  254. 

ft>/,  30. 
b!^r,  229. 
bhnd,  declined,  107. 

dagr,  229. 
—dumr,  229 

crfa,  260. 


fi'wji,  139. 

cA-,  declined,  130. 

cUifu,  139. 

—enne^—aule,  175. 

p^j^i'r,  331. 

cr,  130. 

er — ,  254. 

—faldr,  229. 
—fmtr,  229. 
ftarri,  254. 
Jhum,  139. 
Jiorir,  139. 
/or—,  254. 
fram,  254. 
/mm,  126. 
—fidlr,  229. 
/iis,  242. 
/^r?,  254. 

(7—  254. 

f/i'i/,  declined,  88. 

/law",  declined,  95. 
Aardr,  229. 
hcdan,  252. 
/ierfra,  252. 
/(.?/•,  252. 

/tfrr,  declined,  83. 
hundrad,  139. 
hvadan,  252. 
/jwar,  135,  252. 
/iijfirr,  126. 
7<Da«,  135. 
livert,  252. 

— ?,  adv.,  252. 
t,  254. 
ia,  261. 
?rf— ,  254. 
inn,  254. 
i<,  130. 

fcaZZa,  160 ;  inflected,  165. 
kallada,  160. 
kdlluduyn,  160. 
kynni,  229. 

— Zat<«,  229. 
/ef/?-,  229. 
;e)A-r,  220. 
likr,  229. 

—madr,  229, 
-77(^2,  229. 
maf,  254. 
vieiri,  123. 
Ttieistr,  123. 
wwr,  130. 
mik'^tnei,  123. 
wife,  130. 
win,  130. 
■mfnji,  132. 
mws — ,  254. 

nam,  inflected,  166. 
n&mi,  inflected,  171, 
ne,  254. 
nekan,  346. 
nem,  inflected,  165. 
neni,  imperative,  174. 
iuma,  175. 
nemandi,  175. 
nemi,  inflected,  170. 
niu,  139. 
numian,  173. 


INDEX  OF  AVOKDS. 


241 


ok,  262. 

okkar,  130, 132. 
okkr,  130. 
ir,  254. 
oos,  130. 

—rdd,  220. 
rann,  229. 
— r^T,  220. 

sa,  declined,  133. 
sam — ,  254. 
samr,  133, 229. 
scapr,  229. 
se<!a,  248. 
sex,  139. 
*t,  254. 
s/aw,  139. 
Sinn,  132. 
siotiyi,  139. 
«!(?a,  248. 
sntjrfr,  229. 
scwr,  declined,  03. 
—stafr,  229. 
s«,  declined,  133. 

talda,UO;  inflected,  1C3. 

taldr,  175. 

tel,  Inflected,  1G5. 

telja,  160. 

^7, 351. 

tiit,VS9;  — <tw,  139. 

t'Udum,  160. 

fo//,  139;  —??!(,  139. 

tugasti,  140. 

tuttugu,  139. 

«fci>,  139. 

padan,  252. 

padrn,  252. 

/lar,  252. 

jbai,  declined,  133. 

/)cc,  130. 

jb/l-,  130. 

/>itt,  130. 

jbjJiJi,  132. 

pit,  130. 

/<(),  260.         ' 

prettian,  130. 

priatigi,  139. 

/»-tr,  i39. 

/liJ,  declined,  ICO. 

pusund,  139. 

?7— ,  254. 

«?/)•,  declined,  "0. 

urn  (ymbe),  254,  360. 

imdr,  355. 

//Tii/r,  28. 

unz,  254. 

i/pti,  350. 

■7'/)jj,  254. 

■>ir—,  254. 

wf,  254. 

vanr,  35S. 
r<Jr,  130. 
rt'tn-,  132. 
ve,  Svved.,  203. 
ver,  130. 
vid,  264,  359. 
— ii«,  229. 
tit.,  130. 

iY/a»-,  130, 132. 
v/rfr,  130. 
i/Wrar,  1.30, 132. 
i'Alr,  130. 


HIGH  GERMAN, 

MOGTLY 

OLD  HIGH  GERMAN. 
—a,  251,  252. 
d<ar—,  254. 
aba,  254. 
a/tar,  331. 
d/ire,  209. 
an,  262. 
a«(t,  254. 
andera.  120. 
««?,  254. 
aJif?,  202. 
avh,  254. 
ar,  254. 

b'l,  25. 
CadM — ,  32. 
balo,  32. 

bezerroro,  127. 
?)?a«,  269. 
6((c/),  209. 
buochcri,  228. 

eft,  see  i'. 

danana,  252. 

rfaii^a,  262. 

rfdr,  252. 

dar-a ;  — at,  252. 

daz,  declined,  104. 

daz,  46S. 

dcr,  declined,  104. 

diner,  132. 

diser,  133. 

rf?«,  declined,  104. 

do,  252. 

do/(,  262. 

f/rt,  41. 

di'i,  declined,  180. 

dtirah,  254. 

cddo,  262. 
edilim,  228. 
ejio,  262. 
eo,  254. 
cogar,  254. 
csilinchilin,  228. 

/a/is,  36. 
—/«((,  229. 
/ar,  253. 
/a<cr  unser,  381. 
/cr,  254. 
/cs^e,  269. 
fila,  25. 
— /oJ,  229. 
fora,  254. 
/ram,  254. 
frumi,  120. 
/?<n«,  242. 
fuotisal,  223. 
/tfoz,  41. 
/j«r?,  253. 

gancrit,  1 T5. 
gnivmianer,  ITS. 
V/e/i,  213. 
gexicht,  209. 
(7?M,  252. 
c/ruimi,  114. 
i/Mfin,  228. 

haltav,  l.TO. 

liana/,  41. 

/«n('y,  declined,  95. 


— fiar?,  229. 

ftcer,  269. 

/ie;:aZ«,  159. 

/i«7,  269. 

fteim,  24. 

— ft«V,  229. 

/(era,  252. 

herot,  252. 

/ier>-,  269. 

AiaZt,  159. 

hiar,  252. 

hinana,  252. 

/i!rt?',  declined,  S3,  (t. 

/ioA,  118. 

hmipit,  41. 

huieo,  252. 

hxi'anana,  252. 

Incdr,  252. 

hwar-a ;  — of,  2.52. 

teaz,  135. 

hiocdar,  120. 

/tiwr,  135. 

—i<C—itha,  106. 
?(i,  261. 
T6m,  262. 
?ezt(o,  262. 
i/i,  41. 
in,  254. 
mw,  262. 
2o/t,  202. 
—ira,  82, 223. 
?Y— ,  254. 
iwarer,  132. 

jfM,  252. 
jung,  28. 
junkilinc,  223. 

to—,  25.^. 

terw,  37. 

Aei6,  — ?>,  82. 

kind,  41. 

klippc,  269. 

komo,  41. 

^r«/*  (chra/t),  229,  209. 

chimd,  229. 

rhunni,  229. 

kunni,  declined,  S3,  a. 

— ?,  230. 
— taos,  229. 
ZfiicAfi,  209. 
— Zej/i,  229. 
— ;i7j,  229. 
— liche,  251. 

magati,  22S. 
—^lahal,  229. 
—wan,  229. 
7?!d»w,  24. 
nrnrr,  38. 
milur,  32. 
miner,  132. 
iniii—,  254. 
unY)',  254. 
niM</t,  209. 

«a7«,  inflected,  1C6. 
uumi,  inflected,  171. 
ne,  2,'>4. 
iiehen,  2!>S. 
nfin,  261. 
ncman,  175. 
nemanti,  17.*). 
n^me,  inflected,  170. 
nerita,  inflected,  163. 


Q 


242 


INDEX  OF  WOKDS. 


iuri-ta,  — tumes,  160. 

nerjan,  100. 

■iierjy,  inflected,  105. 

ni,  '254. 

nidar,  '255. 

nieo,  '201. 

■nim,  inflected,  174. 

wi'mt/,  inflected,  105. 

nn,  252,  262. 

0.  251. 
oil—,  262. 
o/i,  262. 
— o*-,  12,^. 
—ost,  123. 
oatroni,  228. 

^n2-t<,  — fiwcs,  61. 

yjfir?,  229. 

pi,  254. 

};("m,  inflected,  213. 

plint,  declined,  107. 

—rat,  229. 

rMisal,  '2'2S. 
— rt/(,  229. 

.saffif,  269. 

salpo-n,  Ota,  — tumes,  ICO. 

—sam,  229. 

sama,  '2.54. 

.saw),  2.^4. 

,sa»io,  lay. 

«<l>i,  24. 
sc=sh,  34. 
i'ca/i,  229. 
achdrpe,  269. 
sciZ,  209. 
senfti,  3T. 
«?,  213. 
sm — ,  254. 
sine);  132. 
—sniid,  229. 
so,  134. 
— staj->,  229. 
steinuht,  228. 
steoz,  159. 
sterbz,  159. 
«<W2, 159. 
stozan,  150. 
«miM,  declined,  93. 

?ac,  229. 

tarnunkim,  251. 
ta«,  108. 

teto,  inflected,  ICS. 
tior,  41. 
?(>>•/,  269. 
—tuom,  229. 
??<0H,  213. 

«,  71. 
'«6a>-,  252. 
iV,  254. 
ft  fan,  356. 
umpi,  254. 
Mn — ,  254. 
unsarer,  132. 
itnf — ,  254. 
iintar,  355. 
1/r— ,  2,'54. 
«z,  254. 

-teste  (M.  II.  G.),  229. 

w,  .=!0. 
tto/c,  269. 


icarnunrja,  228. 

— ?t'ar<,  2'2U. 

H'e,  203. 

ttieiH,  269. 

ioefr,  inflected,  212. 

wela,  203. 

— u'crf,  229. 

ituclit,  209. 

widar,  254. 

tofee  (M.  II.  G.),  229. 

widf,  declined,  70. 

waste,  209. 

zah,e,1f,0. 
Zand,  37,  41. 
zar,  254. 
zer,  254. 
Z),  254. 
zugonto,  140. 
2M0,  254. 
zwcig,  209. 

LATIN. 

a,  18,  38,  2. 

— a,  neuter,  64,  7'2. 

—a<&,  228. 

(?.,  18. 

—a—,  160. 

a&,  254. 

abbatissa,  268. 

ac«s,  228. 

ad,  254. 

admir-e,  — er,  —at ion,  37. 

CB.IS. 

cevo—,  228,  254. 

age,  443. 

acp-o—,  228. 

af,  IS. 

— ai=:nr,  36. 

aliquis,  130. 

aHo«.s  (Pr.),443. 

alterus,  126. 

amatuin  ire,  445. 

amaturum  esse,  445. 

amavi,  IGO. 

a»t6 — ,  254. 

««,  254. 

an—  254. 

ancora  (ancor),  270. 

andiamo  (Ital.),  443. 

^ndrciJs,  declined,  101. 

—dneo—,  228. 

anguis,  228. 

nre<e,  2.54. 

aper,  35. 

aperio,  38. 

Aprilis,  38. 

— aj-=:  — ai,  36. 

— ard  (O.  Fi-.),  229. 

—dri+io,  228. 

-As,  101. 

asrmis,  41. 

— as^ro— ,  228. 

(ti<,  IS. 

audivi,  160. 

?i,  19,  35. 

bahamum  (balsavt),  270. 

bellico—,  228. 

— W,  63,  254. 

6t6ere  dari,  453. 

bibiturus  sum,  415. 

brevity,  37. 

brief,  — er,  37. 

buxus,  270. 

r,19. 


c=(,  27. 

camera,  35. 

cannabis,  41. 

cd^Mtf,  41. 

career,  229. 

castrxmi  {ceaster),  33,  34, 270. 

—re,  133. 

centum,  139. 

cctitiiria,  l;i9. 

Christus,  declined,  Kil. 

cineris,  35. 

ertro,  252. 

civilis,  34. 

— c-i,  230. 

CO—,  254. 

—CO,  228. 

ccelitus,  63. 

ccpiMwi>ceruleau,  S6. 

collarn'p-cou,  41. 

co»i,  03. 

condemno,  38. 

contra,  359. 

correctum,  38. 

credo  (creda),  270. 

«6TO,  254. 

— ciMigiic,  luC. 

d,  19. 

damno,  38. 
-de,  63. 
decern,  130. 
dcn<j.9,  37, 41. 
dexter,  120. 
di.™,  158. 
diligo,  38. 
dingua,  139. 
dw,  254. 
doc?<j,  100. 
doctuni  ire,  445. 
dome-,  228. 
domunculo—,  228. 
do?w<TO,175. 
dtdcis,  41. 
— dwwi.  esse,  445. 
dMO,  139. 
duodecim,  139. 
— dtfs,  451. 

c,18. 

e,18. 

— e,  ablative,  251. 

edmus,  443. 

edonis,  228. 

efficio,  38. 

efl'o,  41 ;  declined,  130. 

e'i,  18. 

crwe,  inflected,  1 74. 

emem,  inflected,  170. 

eniendo,  175. 

ementis,  175. 

eoii,  inflected,  100. 

(■«(o,  105. 

cmptus,  175. 

— e?i< — an,  223. 

CO  mugis,  374. 

episcopus,  43. 

epistola  (pistol),  43. 

eqiius,  declined,  70. 

— er,  122, 129,  228. 

— er<«.y,  228. 

— c)-?i,  229. 

— cs,101. 

espafe  (Fr.),48. 

es«,  213. 

et,  262. 

c*,  254. 

ea;— ,48. 


INDEX  OF  WOKDS. 


243 


exclude,  4S. 
exsulto,  38. 
externo—,  228. 
extra,  228. 
extrdneo—,  228. 

/,  19,  35. 

facio,  38. 

facillimo — ,  12C. 

fera,  41. 

fero,  228. 

—ferm,  229. 

/Zii^s,  declined,  S3. 

forvw—,  228. 

/mter,  38, 41,  228. 

fraxino — ,  228. 

freg't,  — irtuts,  158. 

frucUis,  declined,  93. 

fruor,  300. 

fufia,  228. 

.f!>f/i,  —imus,  158. 

fugio,  158. 

/MS,  160,  213. 

fuisse  habitiirttm,  445. 

!7,19. 

—<jena,  229. 

—gen-US,  —eris,  34,  22S,  229. 

—ginti,  139. 

(g)no')iien,  228. 

^,19. 

habco,  perfect,  458. 

/(fiBC  d/ccrfi  habco,  453. 

Hecuba,  35. 

Hefodes,  declined,  101. 

/tzc,  133,  252,  374. 

Ainc,  252. 

/iO*'e,  130. 

/(omo,  41,  Tl ;  declined,  95. 

hu/;,  252. 

hymnus,  43. 

7, 18,  22S. 

i<jd,  228. 

•i,  18. 

— i— ,  160;  — i— ,  26T. 

sV/nw,  228. 

irt,  254. 

ill—,  254. 

—ina<dnja,  228. 

tnde,  C3. 

infero,  38. 

insidia,  228. 

j'nter,  120 ;  /jcec,  355. 

—w<ja,  228. 

— ion<CJan,  228. 

— 7or,  123. 

ice,  158. 

— 7SC0— ,  228. 

— wsa,  232. 

— issimo — ,  12G. 

iste,  declined,  103, 

ita,  252. 

itcrum,  254. 

h  19. 

jfam,  252,  2C2. 
joeiLH^gioco,  34. 
Jove^Qiove,  34. 
jugo—,  22S. 
jfwratjw,  465. 
jMBcnw,  28. 

J,  19, 35. 
— «,  23C. 
— io,  228, 


laterna,  229. 
legionis,  228. 
Zef/o,  38. 
legionis,  228. 
liberal,  36. 
iibrdrio—,  228. 
-(('c,  229. 
lilium  {Itlie),  2T0. 
— J/»iO — ,  126. 
lingua,  139. 
literal,  36. 
hicerna,  229. 
lupus,  41. 

m,  19,  35. 
machina,  35. 
maj-or,  — ws,  123. 
mantis,  228. 
^[as^•inissa,  35. 
wif',  130. 
med^vie,  130, 
medio — ,  228. 
7)i«?,  130. 

—r>icn<— «!«??,  228. 
mentis,  228. 
metrmn,  50. 
i«ci6s',  132. 
«u7(?',  130. 
millia,  139. 
mirac-Ie,  — ulous,  3T, 
— »io,  228. 
modulationis,  34. 
mulgco,  50. 
in«r<r(«  I'lV,  394. 

n,  19. 

tiationis,  34. 
natura,  34. 

iiculo — ,  228. 
?(<',  254. 
7(.c— ,  228. 
Tie,  254. 
nebula,  35. 

Mf,  228. 

710, 228. 
Jtoftj'if,  130. 
«oZ?,  auxil.,420. 
{g)nomen,  228. 

7!0M,  201  ;   7i7'.S7",  345. 

nona  (non),  2T0. 
nos,  130. 
noster,  132. 
nostr-i,  —urn,  130. 
»i07(,s  (Fr.),  360. 
novem,  139. 
novus,  139. 
— «!(,  228. 

ji?f.< — »;«,  228. 
)!7t»u;,  'J52. 

0,18. 

0,  noun.  228. 

o,  verb,  228. 
w,  18. 

6,  ablative,  251. 
ob-\-fero,  3.5. 
oceanuJi,  34. 
octo,  139. 
oe,18. 
oi,  18. 

oinnii^unus,  139. 
un<i—an,  228. 
opwj*  c«f,  212. 

;j,  19, 35. 

palatium  {palant),  270. 

pario,  38. 


pafcr,  38,  228. 
pecten,  228. 
^edw,  41. 
pensionis,  34. 
iJer,  254. 
^er — ,  254. 
jjcj-eji — ,  254. 
pergit  tectum,  415. 
persicus  (persuc),  270. 
Petrus,  declined,  101. 
planusypiano,  41. 
plenus,  229. 
poetastre  (Pr.),  223, 
porro,  254. 
potior,  300, 
]}otus,  465. 
pj-«B,  40,  254. 
primus,  126. 
priusquam,  332. 
i^co,  254. 
prunum,  41. 
pulchcrrimo—,  126. 

'7,19. 
'^((fp,  135. 

qvalisqiw'^qxiclque,  143, 
quarto—,  123. 
qtiatuor,  139, 
— g«/^,  133. 
questionis,  34. 
g!(!",  379. 
quinque,  139. 
gtMS,  135,  379. 
quisque,  133, 
57«>a<f,  333. 
5i«)d,  135, 408. 
quomodo,  252. 
quum,  252. 

r,19. 

rapiendtnn  esse,  445, 
regina,  228, 
regula  {regol),  270. 
j-fa;,  228. 
—TO,  228. 
— rws,  451. 

.9, 19. 

.s-aifo,  38. 

Sarmatce,  50, 

scientia,  34. 

scolymos,  50. 

scutrisco — ,  228. 

se,  63, 132. 

sccunduvi,  331. 

securus,  34. 

sedco,  158. 

«6d-J,  — imus,  158. 

seiia,  228. 

sew(pc7-),  2.54. 

.se7W7',  41,  2.54. 

septcm,  139,  4S9. 

scptuaginta,VA'X 

scptumiis,  120. 

■sex,  139. 

/i7,  2.54. 

.Si'c,  252. 

8Z?«,  213. 

similis,  1.33. 

simtd,  254. 

sinister,  126. 

so«;r,  268. 

Hocrus,  268. 

solar,  36, 

solidarius,  34, 

somnus,  228. 

spatium,  48,  ^ 


24-i 


INDEX  OF  WORDS. 


spatula,  i>5. 

a,  18,  as. 

tf,  139. 

statu,%  22S. 

u^pof,  22S. 

tTTTti,  139. 

stellar,  3l5. 

a<.IH. 

<-'(J/)a)7a,  — )UCi',  153. 

»ub,  '2b4. 

<i,  18. 

i.rT.,213. 

.•iiim,  inflected,  213. 

iiFe;,254. 

ertpoe,  126. 

super,  25'2,  254. 

ulFcii-,  228. 

gri,  262. 

Stiper-iu',  — tw — ,  252. 

—aiva,  228. 

eX'f,  228. 

surdastro—,  22S. 

u/ja,  254. 

£w,18,38. 

«if«,S  132. 

u/itXTio,  50. 

Sip-isco—,  22S. 

u/i(/)<,  254. 

C,19. 

ai-,  262. 

Ci;76k,  228. 

^19. 

av—,  254. 

taberna,  22£>. 

ui.d,  254. 

M,  18,38. 

talis,  133,  490. 

avTi,254. 

— n,  228. 

tam,  252. 

uTTo,  254,  318. 

ri,  declined,  103,63. 

«a?irfe)H,  262. 

aartjf),  48. 

^,  declined,  103. 

ta7itus,  490. 

FSffTi/,  228. 

n  ;  0,0);   >],  158. 

(^,  130. 

aw,  18,  38. 

p,  18. 

«i>^(;,  130. 

ai(T<9),  234. 

>iMc7r,  130. 

—tec,  22S. 

tljufxepo?,  132. 

thesaurus,  34. 

/3,19. 
/3a<rJ\ii/va,  223. 

»)/i( — ,  41,  254. 
-.,po+<o,228. 

— M,  228. 
fiM,  63, 130. 

/3<73„M.,  213. 

;ip«9,  229. 
vv,  18. 

fofMS,  490. 

7,19. 

76,  130. 

— 761-^9,  229. 

7f  i/or,  228. 

7XUKU9,  41. 

7i'U)/uoi'Of,22S. 

trans,  254. 
tredccim,  139. 
tres,  41, 139. 

61,19. 

0e>Tieniii,  160. 
H^aiva,  228. 

triginta,  139. 

—fit  (Umbriau),  63. 

— ^M,  — rio«,  — fH»,  228. 

— «6^  63. 
e*6pM09,  223. 

e*.}p,4i. 

ep7,vv^,  223. 
(a)«i,254. 

tA,  declined,  130. 
<!«i— ,  130. 
turn,  252. 

a,  19. 

-de,  254. 

— tM«!.  ire,  445. 

Sibtixa,  — /let',  loS. 
deiKm/ii,  158. 
d«a,  139. 
6/,,  252,262. 
e.ci,  254. 
6uo, 139. 
(aF)£lKo<T,,I39. 
iwacKa,  139. 

<,  18. 

— <,  228. 

:,  18. 

Vm,  468. 

— i>/i/a,228. 

— io<j(l,  228. 

IVwo?,  declined,  70 

— turimi  esse,  —fitisse,  445. 

—turns  sum,  415. 

— «KS,  63. 

— JmJ;',  22S. 

htMS,  132. 

tympanum  {tiin2yanc),  270. 

It,  IS,  ."..5. 

FiVjuei',  158. 

it=y,  30. 
— w,  454. 

6,18. 

— lo-Ko,  228. 

— 6<— ac,  228. 

— (o-ffa,  268. 

u,  IS. 

t,  63, 132. 

—uikifui,  160. 

tlSdofxo^,  126. 

K,  19. 

Ultjsses,  139. 
itnde,  C3. 

tf3dofj.i]KovTa,  139. 
t7ei/6T0,397. 

Kix/iupa,  35. 
KtiSpii-or,  228. 

undecim,  139. 

t7ui,  declined,  130. 

—/to,  228. 

MMtw,  386. 

(■(Spa,  228. 

Kor,  135. 

-rtts,  101,  228. 

«>£,,  24. 

— KOl/Tl,  139. 

tt«,  252, 468. 

t^o/uai,  157. 

(corepot,  126. 

uterus,  126. 

61,  18,24. 
el,  262. 

A,  19. 

v,  19,  30. 

6i'„i/,213. 

—XiK,  229. 

t)«,  254. 

eiKovo?,  228. 

\o7i/<69,228. 

vertere,  229. 

(8F)eV/io<7i,  139. 

\uK09,  41. 

resfcr,  132. 

6ifi(',  inflected,  213. 

i;i,  254. 

elfit,  158,213. 

M,  19. 

vi<Cfui,  ICfl. 

6;5<ti's-,  139,356. 

Mairavaaan^,  35. 

videlicet,  46S. 

EKci/ir,,  35. 

Me7«rT0.,  123. 

t)Mi,  inflected,  212. 

UaT6i>,  139. 

IxelZov,  123. 

vidimus,  158. 

tKi/p69,  268. 

/xecdov,  228. 

{d)viginti,  139. 

tfM6?,  132. 

/neTci,  254. 

«ir,  229. 

f^ou,  130. 

/uriKif,  228. 

— ■yo<— t)a,  22Sw 

61/,  254. 

jUfiTi9,  228. 

w6i.s,  130. 

-61-,  228. 

fivxavih  35. 

DOS,  130. 

tVde/ia,  139. 

— yuo,  228. 

vJsir-f,  —Mm,  130. 

iriepoi,  255. 

— MOK,  228. 

vu=p,  30. 

e>Ha,  252. 

«y«6e,  252. 

^6,228. 

GREEK. 

oV«e^  2.52. 
e./.',  254. 

rtFay,  139. 

i/(-'ku9,  declined,  93. 

a,  18 

Ivvea,  139. 

i/f'/ae,  inflected,  174 

i— ,  254 

ti/of,  254. 

vi/xeiv,  175. 

—a,  neuter,  64. 

6f,  254. 

yc/.ir)T0t,  175. 

INDEX  or  WORDS. 


245 


vfMO'M',  inflected,  170. 
i/ffioi/To?,  175. 
veyuo),  — nt,  inflected,  165. 
i/etf/ui'"",  inflected,  IGG. 
i'6i'6|x(tiKo)ini',  inflected,  171. 
vtFo9,  139. 
v€(p€\n,  35, 
vn— ,  254. 
— H,228. 
nvCvj,  228. 
—I/O,  228. 
— i/i/,228. 
tpv,  252. 
via,  130. 
*v(5(,  130. 
iftoiTcpo?,  132. 

f  i'.!-,  254. 

o,  18,38. 

— o— ,228,2G7. 

6,  ^,  TO,  declined,  63, 103. 

o,  declined,  103. 

oa,  2G3. 

odov,  322. 

'06i/(r<rey9,  139. 

oi,  18. 

Foraa,  1.58;  inflected,  212. 

£Fit,  declined,  89. 

FoK-jo,  228. 

OKTCO,  139. 
ofjLOi,  133. 
—01/,  228. 
on'ur,  4G8. 

—09,101. 

Of,  >),  o,  declined,  103. 

or,  132. 

(iaaa,  228. 

OTi,4G8. 

ow,  18. 

ou<[oo,  24. 

ouai,  2G2. 

hippvi,  48. 

TT,  19. 

Traidi'oi/,  228. 
7raid£<rK09,  228. 
■ira'i(6)i,  228. 
Trap,  254. 
napd,  254,  333. 
irapor,  254. 
itivTi,  139. 
TTf^ti/^a,  — /u£i/,  158, 
iri<pa>ia,  — fxtv,  158. 
itfpa,  254. 
wfpaK,  254. 
wepi,  254. 
irevOo^aij  158. 
7rXt'o)9,  229. 
irdtiev,  252. 
witfi,  135. 
TTor,  252. 
TroiiJ.iv,T\. 
iroiixijv,  declined,  95. 
iT6<:y  135. 
TToTe,  252. 
woE,  135,  252. 
Trpii,  254. 
TTpo/^oy,  I2G. 
irputTo,  123. 
wuif,  252. 

p,  19. 
—pa,  228. 
Fpriyvvfli,  158. 
— po,  228. 


<r,  19. 

CT^f,  132. 

(TTraTciXt),  35. 

aa<K;,  228. 

—o- (TO,  228. 

CTiJ,  declined,  130. 

(tOi;  63. 

— CTUi^n,  228. 

(T<pw,  0-00)1,  inflected,  130. 
CT^wtTepoi',  132. 

T,  19. 

— TO.,  219. 
— Tarof,  127. 

Tf  KVOV,  I  75. 

— T6p, 228. 

rfpevor,  228. 

TfTa(t)/va,  — /UEK,  158. 

TtTTaper,  139. 

Tt]/\iKor,  133. 

TFir  odov,  322. 

— T<,  228. 

W«„Mi,213. 

Ti/jL-iiofiev,  — wfiev,  24. 

Tif,  148,386. 

TO,  63, 103. 

—Top,  228. 

— Tor,  175. 

t6t6  252. 

Tpe^c,  139. 

TpmKOl'Ta,  139. 

Tpia-KaiAeKa,  139, 

T.;,  declined,  130.     ■ 
—TV,  228. 
Tiir,  252. 

«,  18. 

—I/,  228. 

i7,  18. 

F,18. 

Fa,  Fol^a,  etc.    .See  u,  oi^a,  etc. 

I'peif,  declined,  130. 

^^eT6po9,  132. 

fcTTfp,  252,254. 

i'TTi/o?,  228. 

U7r6,  254,348. 

iJo-Tepor,  254. 

0,19. 

0<:peTai,2I9. 
(pfpai,  228. 
(pevju),  158. 
<f>puTopo^,  228. 
0ii->f;,  228. 
0i;w,  213. 
(pwyu),  158. 

X,  19. 

X'A<oi,  139. 
xwprf,  declined,  88. 

u,  18,38. 

o),  ablaut,  158. 

u),  18. 

(uKw,  228. 

— «f<— o)T,  251. 

wr,  252, 4G8. 

SANSKRIT 

AN1> 

INDO-EUROPEAN  PA- 
RENT SPEECH. 

[Parent  Speech  in  r.oman.] 

a,  a,  18, 41. 
—a,  ueuter,  72. 


—a,  —a,  22S. 

a— ,254. 

— ai>e,  18,  02. 

v/ak,  228. 

Vag,  228. 

ajfiw,  228. 

v/agh,  228. 

(tjr'ra,  228. 

—at,  G2. 

utas,  252. 

«^r,  202. 

utra,  252. 

«f/ia,  202. 

«d7t?,  254. 

an—,  254. 

—an,  228. 

aiui,  254,  202. 

ani>?!?',  255. 

an-j-ta,  163. 

antard,  120. 

«?((</»- <ana-tara,  255. 

i'rpa,  254. 

«6ft;,  254. 

—am,  62. 

ama,  68. 

— ams,  62. 

—aja,  228. 

— ardnja,  22S. 

<<i'a,  254. 

a(.<i'7«,  declined,  130. 

avis,  declined,  89. 

dcind,  declined,  S5. 

dgvas,  declined,  70. 

dcvd,  declined,  SS. 

ashtan,  139. 

—as,  228;  — aF,C2. 

asmadl'ja,  132. 

asnid'kam,  130. 

as^nd'n,  130. 

i/.sw)',  inflected,  SID. 

asms',  130. 

aha,  130. 

ahum,  declined,  130. 

<f /j?:,  228. 

d,  a,  18. 

—(J,  228. 

—a,  02. 

utmAn,  131. 

— rfnt< — auja,  223. 

««Vs,  254. 

<efM,  228. 

J,  i,  IS. 
i>aina,  139. 
V',  158,  213,  228. 
—i,  228. 
rtora,  254. 
IndrdnV,  228. 
4,  i,  18. 
—i<:_—jd,  228. 

««,  n,  18. 
-«,228. 
nt,  63,  254. 
uil/tn,  228. 
tf^;a,  254. 
ttpdri,  252. 
«,  n,  18. 

r<r,  19. 

e<ai,  IS. 

e'ka,  1.39 ;  —dacan,  13? 

f'?!«,  139. 

e'vii,  158,  213. 

(''ra,  228. 

eca.%  254. 


246 


INDEX  OF  WOKDS. 


di,  fti,  IS. 
<)<au,  18. 
du,  fin,  18. 

f:,  k,  19. 
—k,  230. 
i^J,  135. 
—to,  228. 
kat,  135. 
Aata)-<(,  126. 
katatar,  13i». 
Vkar,  15S,  IGO. 
karii'mi,  15S. 
itts,  i:!5. 
Kird'mi,  15S. 
kittas,  kiitra,  252. 
i-!(nri«s,  15S. 
Wii'a,  G4. 

i7»<k,19. 

— ga,130.  ■ 
V9'^>ff'm'imi,  213. 
v/fifen,  22S. 
guna,  38. 
Vgiia,  22S. 
gna'vian,  22S. 

ffft<gh,  19. 
— gf/ia,  130. 
y/ghar,  223. 
gliarmd,  228. 

?j,  n,  19. 

/.:'(=ch)<k,  19. 
k'atvdr,  139. 
A/fc'if,  15S. 
k'e'tdmi,  15S. 

i-7£<t'<k,  19. 

.^'(EnglishJXg.ig. 
Hdnas,  228. 
g'igdmi,  213. 

5'A<g,91. 

<,  ?/i<t.  ■ 

d,  dA<d. 

n<n. 

«<t,  19, 

—to,  139, 163,  228. 
tat,  63 ;  declined,  lO-i. 
tata,  163. 
tata'mt,  158. 
ta'-tas,  — tra,  252. 
tatinimd,  158. 
■\/tan,  158. 
— to,wa,  126. 
far,  139. 
—tor,  228. 
—tara,  12G. 
— ta«,  165. 
tasvidi,  104. 
tasmin,  63. 
to^/a,  104. 
Mrfr'te'a,  133. 
fciua,  130. 
— <i,  228. 
'ird'mi,  158. 
ircJs,  254. 
'issar,  139. 


— ««,  228. 
tutm-jd'm,  158. 
tublijam,  63, 130. 
— ^S  219. 
^*'<ta,  104. 
^=<tva,  130. 
teaa,  104. 
tUnimd,  158. 
ti'bhjas,  104. 
tefs'dw,  104. 
—?>•«<— trn,  252. 
trajCidaian,  139. 
/)•!,  13!). 
x/f'-f,  139. 
trim^at,  139. 
— ^■re>— ta,  103. 
tvadVja,  132. 
/■yaid,  130. 
fwrtja,  130. 
<fe,  130. 

fA<t,  10. 
—tlias,  165. 

rf,  d.  19. 
dakan,  139. 
dakanta,  139. 
(ladhdnii,  213. 
ddcan,  139. 
duKcimd,  158. 
did&ca,  158. 
x/dic,  158,  243. 
dU'd'mi,  158. 
'/r/i,  229. 
'-?(?«?.',  228. 
de'i'aja,  158. 
decijjdmi,  245. 
^fa,  130, 139. 
ii-d'dacan,  139. 
(iO«'',  254. 
{d}vim{da)cdti,  139. 

■?/<dh,  19. 

/I,  n,  19. 

««— ,  254. 

— na,  1T5, 228. 

nanama,  inflected,  lOG. 

uanamma,  inflected,  IGC. 

ndma,  inflected,  174. 

ndmandja,  175. 

numanija,  175. 

naviant,  175. 

ninndmi,  inflected,  105. 

namami,  inflected,  165. 

namaiin,  inflected,  170. 

ndmejam,  inflected,  170. 

na(m)ta,  175. 

nuvan,  139. 

navas,  139. 

nas,  130. 

«(««,  130. 

—ni,  228,  255. 

— m«,  228. 

nu,  252. 

nemimd,  inflected,  100. 

nemjd'm,  inflected,  171. 

p,  p,  19. 

Vpa,  228. 
pank'ihi,  139. 
P''/ra,  254. 
pa  rani,  2.54. 
yjarri,  254. 
/jar?,  254. 
\/;'<ir,  248. 
pdrdjdmi,  248. 
/Jj'Wr,  228. 


purds,  254. 
;/Jii;r,  229. 
/«•«,  254. 
prathama,  126. 
jo/<p,  19. 
phttlind,  228. 

fc,  b,  19. 

Vlxuidh,  158. 
hnliundha, 15S. 
babaiidliiind,  158. 
yjbudh,  158. 
hiiblmg'inut,  15S. 
biiblK'/'g'a, 15S. 
bu'dhdmi,  15S. 

6/i,  bh,  19. 

VWiar;'.  158. 

bliavdmi,  213. 
bhdrate,  219. 
blidrdmi,  228. 
— 6/i!,  63. 
6/h'.->',  02. 
blmgnd,  175. 
^bhug',  158,  228,  248. 
bhvg'd',  228. 
bhug'd'nti,  153. 
hhiVg'aja,  158. 
bliog'djdmi,  248. 
blijams,  63. 
blijums,  63. 
^'bhrag',  158. 
blird'tar,  228. 

TO,  »n,  m,  19. 
Jwa,  130. 
—?)(«,  103. 
— r>ia,  120,  22S. 
—^nata,  103. 
«««<?,  228. 
madl'ja,  132. 
madhu,  38. 
madhjd',  228. 
-^nan,  228. 
Vnian,  228. 
mama,  130. 
muiiis't'ha,  123. 
muhijams,  123. 
mdhjam,  130. 
Wfi,  03, 130. 
in(i7?i,  63, 130. 
inithds,  254. 
mrig',  50. 
TO^,  130. 

J,j,19- 
/a,  252. 
;'«,  202. 
— ;■«,  228. 
.;«?,  408. 
jatkd,  408. 
jaf/,  104. 
?a(?,  202. 

-jaw,  22S. 
jffl/ji,  202. 
ws,  104. 
;a,  104. 

-./«>*,  228. 
7)fi7a,  228. 
jujdm,  130. 
j'uvan,  28. 

juvd'm,  declined,  130. 
jus'madi'ja,  132. 
jus'me',  declined,  130. 

r,  r<r,  19. 
— »-a,  126,  228. 


ENGLISH  INDEX. 


247 


;,  1?,  19. 

V,  V,  19. 

va,  130. 

■\/vaks',  15S. 

vdks'dmi,  15S. 

^vad,  22S. 

vdm,  130. 

»ay<i'm,  130. 

eaca^s'rt,  15S. 

vavaks'ivid,  15S. 

»as,  180. 

— »a«,  1C5. 

«i— ,  254. 

V'dj  15S. 

vidmd,  inflected,  212. 

l-((/;<JS22S. 

(d)vi'm(da)cati,  139. 

Bi>i(Z»i«,  15S. 

vividmasi,  212. 

»tt)ai(i«i(i,  212. 

vive'da,  15S. 

r  iras,  229. 

»e'da,  inflected,  212. 

vrit,  229. 

vi'iddld,  3S. 


— rjd,  22S. 

— jnf((,  1.S9. 
—cati,  131). 
fvafMra,  208. 
fpafrw,  2GS. 

.s'=s/i<s,  19. 
s'rts',  139. 
s'astha,  123. 

s,  s,  19. 
— s,  02. 

m,  03 ;  declined,  104. 
sa— ,  03. 
•v/srtf/,  15S,  '_'•(  -. 
sdddjdnti,  2^S. 
sddr'a,  22S. 
sand',  254. 
.«a7Jta(drt ',•«)*',  139. 
saptdn,  139. 
saptamd,  120. 
,sairt,  03. 
sawia,  133. 
o-arntV,  254. 


— sas,  62. 
sasdda,  15S. 
saM,  63. 
sahdsra,  139. 
wJ,  63, 104. 
.•;(ife'M7i,  254. 
«t»«' — ,  254. 
— sums,  C2. 
—sds,  62. 
Sindhu,  —Tea,  22S. 
sidd'mi,  15S,  24S. 
sedimd,  15S. 

•/SM,  228; 

sunti,9,  declined,  93,  22S. 

Va'^/kJ,  228;  —turn,  228. 

sma,  130. 

smds,  inflected,  213. 

■•ijdm,  213. 

.iva,  63. 

Swadya,  132. 

y/svap,  228. 

svdpiia,  228. 

— sua*,  02. 

A<i;h,  19. 


ENGLISH  INDEX. 


a,  how  made  ;  rule  for  use  of; 
history  of,  11, 12,  and  see  in- 
dex of  words. 

«-group  of  letters,  7,  20. 

a-stems,  see  stem. 

n-umlaut,  see  uvilant. 

d,  history  of,  12.  See  index  of 
words. 

(1-steras,  see  stem. 

abbreviations,  5. 

ability,  +iutinitive,  197. 

ablative,  35,  129,  148,  151,  152, 
153, 154, 157. 

ablaut,  table, 7,9, 28;  hist,  and 
comp.etym.  79-80;  conjuga- 
tions, 83, 99,  100,102,103,105, 
107;  mixed,110;  stems  from, 
122. 

above,  161. 

abridged  sentences,  140;  clau- 
ses, 200. 

absolute  case,  comp.  sjoitas, 
152,  201. 

abstracts,  gender  of,  37;  de- 
clension of,  45,  53. 

acatalectic,  223. 

accent,  rules  for ;  proof  of,  0 ; 
variation  from,  9;  hist,  of, 
ill  .'^aiii^krlt,  Greek,  etc.,  30 ; 
kindsof,  3(1;  in  prosody, 222. 

accents  written,  5;  with  con- 
sonants, 19. 

accompaniment,  see  ctssocia- 
tiim. 

accusative,  34 ;  syntax  of,  145 
-14S  ;  ending,  35;  predicate, 
142,  147;  -t-infinitive,  142, 
147,  19S ;  two  accusatives, 
146,  147  ;  +genitivc,  1.50  ; 
-f-dative,  151 ;  in  adverbial 
combinations,  148  ;  after 
nearness,  150 ;  compounds, 
l.'^t;  with  prepositions,  148, 
l.')9;  >dative,  175;  arrange- 
ment of,  218. 


[The  figures  refer  to  pages.] 

accuse,  sj-ntas  of,  150. 

action,  suffixes  of,  124;  with 
subjunctive,  192. 

active  voice,  77,  S3+,  187. 

address,  with  dative,  148. 

adjective, 34;  declension:  def- 
inite, indefinite,  50 ;  weak, 
strong,  50,  58,  59,  00,  173; 
paradigms,  50,  58,  59 ;  hist. 
of,  57,  59 ;  Northumbrian, 
61 ;  comparison,  02,  05 ;  suf- 
fixes, 125, 120 ;  prepositions 
and  prefixes  from,  132 ; 
equivalents  of,  1.39 ;  predi- 
cate, 142 ;  appositive,  143  ; 
with  dative,  149,  151 ;  with 
genitive,  155, 15G,  157 ;  use  of 
forms,  173 ;  agreement  of, 
and  other  syntax,  172-174 ; 
article  with,*170;  with  ger- 
und, 199  ;  arrangement, '218, 
219. 

adjective  clause,  140;  subjunc- 
tive in,  193  ;  conjunction  in, 
207 ;  arrangement,  210,  220. 

adjunct,  157. 

advantage,  with  dative,  149. 

adverbs,  34  ;  comparison  of, 
02  ;  numeral,  77,  182  ;  from 
radicles,  33 ;  derivation,  12S, 
129 ;  correlative,  comp.  ety- 
mol.,  129,  130  ;  equivalents 
of,  139  ;  syntax  of,  182 -f-  ; 
pred.,  attrib.,  iuterrog.,  de- 
mons., expletive,  emphat- 
ic, 183 ;  adverbial  conjunc- 
tions, IS-t ;  negatives,  184  ; 
arrangement,  219,  220. 

adverbial  combination,  de- 
fined, 137,  138,  140 ;  accusa- 
tive in,  148;  dative  in,  151, 
1.52  ;  genitive  in,  158  ;  ar- 
ranMinent  of,  219,  220. 

adverbial  clauses,  140 ;  mode 
in,  193+ ;   conjunction    in, 


207,208;  arrangement,  216, 
220. 

adverbial  compounds,  134. 

adversative  sentence,  141  ; 
—conjunctions,  202, 204, 205, 
209. 

a",  11,  and  see  other  index. 

a^,  13,  and  see  other  index. 

Jiillfric's  futures,  197. 

affirmation,  particles  of,  132, 
184. 

age,  syntax  of,  154, 157. 

agent,  forms  to  express  the, 
123 ;  dative  of,  151. 

aggregation,  syntax  of,  1.54. 

agreement,  of  case -endings, 
142+ ;  adjectives,  172;  pro- 
noun, 174;  verb,  185,  186: 
participles,  200. 

ai=i,  15. 

aid,  svntax  of,  149. 

(dm,  133. 

alfh'r-,-ir>i. 

Alfred,!. 

alliteration,  223+;  conso- 
nants, 223  ;  vowels,  224  ; 
comp.  hist,  of,  224 ;  in  prose, 
225,  228 ;  of  g<i,  17 ;  affect- 
ed shifting,  225;  secondar}', 
227;  in  English,  228. 

alphabet,  4. 

am,  114,  115;  as  future  sign, 
189;  as  perf.  and  pluperf., 
ISO ;  passive,  187,  ISO ;  peri- 
phrastic, 89. 

an,  history  of,  ISO. 

an-stems,"sce  xttms. 

auacolutlion,  141, 143. 

anacrusis,  222,  225. 

anapa;st,  222,  223. 

anastropbe,  141. 

Angles,  1. 

Anglo-Norman,  1. 

Anglo-.Saxon,  history  of,  1  f  ; 
classic,  11. 


248 


ENGLISH  INDEX. 


animals,  srender,  135. 

nntecodiMit,  IT'.t,  180. 

aiitimcria,  141. 

aorisf,  S2. 

nphiBi'csis,  9,  30,  07. 

apocope,  9,  IS,  VJ,  31,  -IT,  57, 
«7. 

npodosis,  141. 

aposiopesis,  141. 

apothesis,  !i,  10,  53. 

appetite,  syntax  of,  145. 

appositive,  137, 142  ;  rules,  ex- 
amples, and  comp.  syntax, 
143,  144  ;  compounds,  134  ; 
with  vocative,  144 ;  names 
154;  article  with,  ITO ;  ar 
ran  cement,  210. 

(7)r,  114, 115. 

arrangement  of  words,  214- 
2-20;  —of  clauses,  220,  221 

arsis,  222,  223,  225. 

articles,  34 ;  paradifrms,  57,  C9, 
71 ;  comp.  etym.,  C9 ;  syntax 
with  adjective,  173  ;  comp 
syntax,  174;  general  syntax 
of  the  def.  article,  176, 177 
omission  of,  176;  indefinite, 
discussion  of,  180  ;  arrange- 
ment, 217. 

o«,  relative,  179. 

ask,  syntax  of,  146, 147, 156. 

aspirates,  10 ;  =rough,  7, 17. 

assibilation,  deflned,  9, 20 ;  his^ 
tory  of,  21,  22. 

assimilation,  examples,  7,  39 
117;  defined,  9,  22,  23,  24; 
labial,  20,  S3, 109 ;  guttural, 
20 ;  by  p,  14,  18,  114,  102  ;  I, 
14,  IS,  19,  80;  m,  11,  12,  1.3, 
18,51,  80,83,  87,100;  ji,  11, 
12,  13,107,108;  r,  20,  SO;  s, 
24,  67,  70 ;  with  progression, 
27 ;  ecthlipsis,  31 ;  in  imper- 
fects, 95 ;  in  presents,  96, 97; 
shifting  stopped  by,  41. 

association,  with  dative,  150. 

asyndeton,  141. 

atonic,  222. 

attraction,  179,  191  ;  in  ar- 
rangement, 214,  219,  220. 

attributive  combination,  de- 
fined, 137, 140, 142 ;  nomina- 
tive, 144 ;  genitive,  153 ;  ar- 
ticle with,  176;  participles, 
200  ;  arrangement  of,  216, 
218,  219 ;  compounds,  134. 

augment,  82. 

author,  genitive  of,  153 ;  pres- 
ent tense,  188. 

auxiliaries,  84,  86,  87,  69,  195  ; 
arrangement  of,  214, 216,219, 
220 ;  relation  to  verse,  225. 

b,  how  made,  15;  hist,  of,  IS, 
30,  and  see  index  of  words. 

hcu;klings,  128. 

Bactrian,  3. 

hase:=anacrus'is. 

bb=:ff,  16. 

be,  dative  after,  150 ;  omitted, 
186. 

hec,  130. 

begin-f-infinitivc,  197 ;  4-par- 
ticiple,  201. 

beticixte,  161. 

hh>m,  39,  45,  49. 

bid-f  infinitive,  198. 


bifurcation,  28, 123. 

brachylogy,  141. 

bra<r<m>'t,  122. 

breaking;,  defined,  9,  14;  eiiu 
nieraled,  2(i ;  c:ik's  of,  11,  is, 
66,  7.'),  95,  97,  99. 100, 102, 103, 
](>7,  lOS,  111,  112,  114  ;  stems 
from,  123. 

hrvtberliimil, 12\. 

Bulgarian,  3. 

c,  described,  15, 10,  IS ;  theme 
in,  111,  and  see  other  index 

cresura,  223. 

Caflirs,  36. 

can,  195. 

cardinals,  73,  74,  75,  70 ;  6311- 
tax,  181,  217. 

case,  34 ;  hist,  of  endings,  35, 
39,  55  ;  summary,  55  ;  ad 
verbs  from,  128+  ;  agree- 
ment of,  142+ ;  cases  mix- 
ed, 175. 

catalectic,  223. 

causal  bases,  79 ;  compounds, 
134;  sentences,  141 ;  parti- 
ciples, 201  ;  conjunctions, 
205,  207,  209. 

causative  verbs,  127,  ISO. 

cause,  dative  of,  151. 

cease,  syntax  of,  157. 

Celtic,  1,  3 ;  rime  in,  225. 

eg,  16, 110. 

ch,  16, 18. 

changes  of  sound,  table  of, 
9;  laws  of,  10,  and  see  the 
names  of  the  several  chau 
ges. 

characteristic,  125, 1.54. 

Chaucer,  1,  55,  05,  72,  US,  167, 
225. 

chief'letter,  224. 

chords,  vocal,  11. 

circumflex,  use  of,  in  thi; 
book,  13. 

cities,  names  of,  declined,  55. 

classic  speech  ideal,  11. 

clause,  defined,  139;  principal, 
CO  -  ordinate,  subordinate, 
quasi -clauses,  139,  140,  145, 
172,  184,  210;  arrangement 
of,  220,  221. 

clean,  syntax  of,  157. 

close  vowels,  6. 

coalescence,  119, 1.34. 

coexistence,  141,  201. 

cognate  letters,  29  ;  accusa- 
tive, 146  ;  dative,  151 ;  geni- 
tive, 154. 

cognition,  with  subjunctive, 
192  ;  with  infinitive,  198  ; 
with  participle,  201. 

collectives,  134, 173, 185. 

combinations  of  letters,  7, 16, 
17 ;  of  words,  137,  and  see 
adverbial,  attributive,  objec- 
tive, predicative. 

command,  196. 

comparative,  02+,  173. 

comparison,  62+ ;  double,  04 ; 
defective,  64, 05;  endings  of, 
in  prepositions,  131,  132  ; 
syntax  in,  152. 

compensation  (compensative 
gemination),  9,  10,  13, 14,  25, 
47,  00,  07,  SO,  85,  94,  97,  99, 
110,111,114. 


complete  sentence,  141 ;  com- 
position, 158. 

complex  sentence,  139, 140. 

composition,  78, 118, 119 ;  —de- 
fined, 134;  nouns,  134;  verbs, 
134,135,158;  lu  tense,  81, 82; 
with  uii-,  200. 

compounds,  gender  of,  37;  de- 
fined, lis. 

compound  sentence,  139,  140, 
141 ;  subject,  185. 

concessive  clauses,  174,  194, 
201,  208,  216,  220. 

conditional  clauses,  194,  216, 
220;  mode,  89;  conjunction, 
20s. 

conformation,  9,  28,  47,  75,  S3, 
85,  87. 

Congoes,  36. 

conjugation,  78;  first,  82+, 
99+,  113,  122,  127 ;  second, 
103,  113,  123, 127  ;  third,  105, 
113, 127 ;  fourth,  107, 114, 123, 
127;  fifth,  108  ;  sixth,  110; 
Giimm's,  78  ;  Sanskrit,  79. 

conjunctions,  34;  etym.,  133  ; 
syntax,  184;  co-ordinate,202 
-205 ;  subordinate,  205-208  ; 
omitted,  208,  209. 

connecting  vowel,  8.5, 114, 115. 

consecutive  clauses,  194, 195. 

consonants,  tables  of,  7, 8;  de- 
scription of,  15+,  and  see 
names  of  classes  of  conso- 
nants, changes,  and  stems. 

contention,  150. 

continuous  consonants,  7, 10, 
15,  24,  95. 

contraction,  6, 10, 13, 14,  32, 50, 
53,  78,  97 ;  related  to  ablaut, 
80,81. 

co-ordinate  letters,  29  ;  clau- 
ses, 139,  191,  215 ;  conjunc- 
tions, 202-205. 

copula,  137, 198,  214,  220. 

copulate,  nouns,  142,  173,  176, 
185,  220. 

copulative  verbs,  137, 142, 186; 
sentences,  141  ;  conjunc- 
tions, 202-204,  208. 

correlatives,  adverbs,  129, 130; 
repeated,  170;  arrangement, 
215. 

countries,  names  of,  declined, 
54. 

crasis,  10,  32. 

crime,  syntax  of,  157. 

cryptoclites,  52,  53. 

customs,  syntax  of,  1S8. 

d,  15, 17, 19,  30, 75,  95,  and  see 
other  index. 

dactyle,  222,  225;  in  English, 
228. 

Danes,  2. 

(Jarklinfi,  128. 

dative, '34,  35;  in  — <?,41;  com- 
pounds, 134  ;  object,  138  ; 
syntax  of,  148-153;  of  influ- 
ence, 148  ;  +  genitive,  149, 
156  ;  of  interest,  149  ;  pos- 
sessor, 150;  reflexive,  150; 
ethical,  150  ;  expletive,  150 ; 
nearness,  150;  use,raasterv, 
150  ;  separation,  151  ;  ad- 
verbial, 151, 1.53;  with  prej)- 
ositiou,  152,  159  ;   absolute, 


ENGLISH  INDEX. 


2i9 


152;  for  accusative,  175; 
after  interjection,  202 ;  ar- 
rangement of,  218,  219,  and 
see  under  each  declension. 

decay,  phonetic,  36,  55,  65,  72. 

declarative  sentence,  l39, 191 ; 
arrangement  of,  214;  con- 
junction, 200. 

declension,  table  of  substan- 
tive, 37 ;  first,  3S-f ,  49 ;  sec- 
ond, 44-j-,  49;  third,  4S-)-,  49; 
fourth,  50+ ;  proper  names, 
54-f- ;  adjectives,  50+  ;  de- 
monstrative and  article,  57; 
participles,  01 ;  intinitive,61, 
SS ;  pronouns,  06+ ;  North- 
umbrian, 49, 51, 01 ;  English, 
55,65,72. 

(leer,  136. 

defective  nouns,  52  ;  verbs, 
112+. 

definite  declension,  50 ;  see 
article. 

definitive,  143;  object,  146, 210, 
217,  218. 

demonstrative  pronouns,  57, 
09,  70,  72,  173,  170,  217  ;  ad- 
verb, 183. 

denominatives,  118, 127, 128. 

dental,  7, 15,  17,  19,  29 ;  =lin- 
;;ual  of  many  grammars. 

derivation,  nouns,  11S+,  135: 
adjectives,  125+  ;  verbs, 
126-j-;  adverbs,  12S+;  prep- 
ositions and  prefixes,  130-|--; 
particles,  132 ;  conjuctions, 
133;  interjections,  133. 

descriptives,143:  arrangement 
of,  210,217;  compounds,  134. 

determinatives,  134. 

dh=rf,  17  ;  >d,  19,  29 ;  >s,  19. 

dialects,  1, 17+. 

dimeter,  223. 

diminutives,  124, 125. 

dimorphism,  2S. 

diphthong,  0, 14. 

direct  object,  13S,  197,  201 ;  ar- 
rangement of,  214, 218. 

disjunctive,  141, 183,  204,  209. 

disposition,  suffix  of,  125. 

dissimilated  gemination,  10, 
CO,  75,  83, 117. 

dissimilation,  9,  24,  95. 

distributives,  77, 143. 

do,  89. 

do(j,  136. 

— rfom,  121. 

double  object,  140. 

drunkard,  122. 

dual,  34+,  60+,  82,  S3  ;  appos- 
itive  with,  143,  144;  other 
syntax,  174. 

duty,  syntax  of,  197. 

Dutch,  3. 

e,ll,12;  =a?,  ea,12;  >y,12. 

0, 13, 15. 

ea,  >i,  12 ;  >e,  12 ;  >y,  12,  20 ; 

=eo,  15. 
ea,  14. 

easy,  syntax  with,  199. 
ccthlipsis,  9,  10,  18, 19,  31,  51, 

57,117. 
fftsoons,  128, 160. 
ci,  15. 

Egyptian  numerals,  75. 
cl.'sion,  9,  31. 


ellipsis,  141. 

eUe,  128. 

emotion+genitive,  155;  +in- 
fiuitiveay7; +participle,  201. 

emphasis,  arrangement  for, 
214,  218,  219. 

emphatic  verb,  186. 

empty+genitive,  157. 

enalliige,  141. 

encliiic,  13. 

end, +infinitive,  197;  +parti- 
ciple,  201. 

endings,  see  case,  inflection, 
stern,  tense. 

Englisc,  1. 

English,  1;  relation  to  Anglo- 
Saxon,  1,17;  assibilation, 
21 ;  precession  in,  27 ;  com- 
pensation, 26;  case-endings 
in,  55;  comparison,  64 ;  de- 
clension of  adjective,  05 ; 
pronouns,  72 ;  ablaut,  99, 
100,  102,  103,  105,  107  ;  con- 
tracted reduplication,  108, 
109,110;  weak  verbjlll,  112; 
diminutive,  125;  future,189 ; 
verbals,  201 ;  verse  225,  228. 

eo>y,  12. 

eo,  14, 15. 

epenthesis,  9, 11, 19,  31,  45, 57. 

epicene,  38, 130. 

epithesis,  9, 11,31,57- 
equivaleuts,  grammatical,  109. 

— em,  121. 

ethical  dative,  150. 

etymology,  33+. 

Etymology,  comparative.  (At 
each  reference  are  discuss- 
ed the  forms  iu  Sanskrit, 
Greek,  Latin,  Gothic,  Old 
Saxon,  Old  Norse,  Old  High 
German.)  The  letters,  8; 
Nounsj  a -stems,  39;  ia- 
stems,  4'i;  a -stems,  44;  i- 
stems,  45+;  u- stems,  48; 
an-stems,  50,  51 ;  Adjec- 
tives, 57,  59 ;  comparison, 
02-04;  Pronoun, person- 
al, 66, 67;  possessive, 69;  de- 
monstrative, 70,  57 ;  article, 
57;  interrogative,  71 ;  Nu- 
merals, 74+ ;  "Verb,  ab- 
laut, 79;  contracted  imper- 
fect, 81;  compound  imper- 
fect, 81  •,  active  iud.  present, 
83  ;  (im)perfect,  85  ;  sub- 
junctive present,  87;  (im)- 
perfect,  87  ;  imperative,  in- 
finitive, gerund,  participles, 
88;  pneteritive  verbs,  112; 
substantive  verb,  114;  pas- 
sive, 116;  Suffixes,  119- 
122;  diminutives,  125;  Ad- 
verbs, 129, 1,30 ;  Prepo- 
sitions and  prefixes,  130- 
132;  Conjunctions, 
133;  Interjections,  133; 
Coniitosition,  135. 

eu,  15. 

euphonic  variation,  9. 

every,  181. 

exciting  object,  15.5, 150,  201. 

exclamatory  sentence,  139,191, 
215. 

expletive /la-r,  183;  dative,  150. 

explosive  consonants,  7. 

expression  in  verse,  222,  223. 


f,  8, 15, 18, 19,  20,  23. 
factitive  object,  138,  130,  140, 

142,  144,  147,  lOS,   170;    ar- 
rangement of,  210;  verb,  186. 

—fast, -in. 

fear,  with  dative,  150;  with 
subjunctive,  192. 

feeling,  with  genitive,  149, ir^S; 
dative,  149. 

feet  iu  verse,  222 ;  order  of, 
226. 

feminine,  see  (lender. 

figuration,  9,  30. 

final  clause,  194,  20S ;  object, 
198, 199,  201. 

fitness,  svutax  with,  125, 192. 

Flemish,  2. 

—fold,Vi\. 

foreign  proper  names,  54+. 

forget,  syntax  with,  156. 

French,  appositive,144;  verse, 
225;  see  Norman. 

friendship,  122. 

(Old)  Friesic,  3,  S,  IS;  comp. 
etym.,  39,41, 42, 44, 45, 49,  f  0, 
59 ;  pron.,  09,  71 ;  num.,  70 
verb,  SO,  81,  S3,  S5,  87,  Ss  ; 
conj.,  133. 

Froissart,  179. 

—.ft,  origin  of,  97. 

—full,  121. 

fullness,  syntax  with,  157. 

future,  78,  84,  85,  86;  auxilia- 
ries, ISS  ;  for  imperative, 
189;  syntax,  188,  ISO;  pas- 
sive, 197. 

future  perfect,  189. 

g,  15,16;  <i,  17;  <h,f,  18,10. 
breaking,  20 ;  shifting,  29+. 

gg=ug,  17;  eg,  16. 

gemination,  7,16.  rule  for,  10; 
examples,  25, 30, 31, 41 ,  46, 57. 
60,  95,  97, 100  ;  quasi  -gem., 
43,  53,  75,  83 ;  see  dissimila- 
ted. 

gender,35;  historyof,36;  fotn- 
ines<neuters,  36;  rules  for, 
37;  comparative,  136;  forms 
to  express,  135;  derivatives, 
136;  of  appositives,  144. 

gcnitive,34,35,37,  compounds, 
134;  object, 138;  syntax,  gen- 
eral discussion,  153-158 ;  at- 
tributive, 1.53,  154;  predica- 
tive, 155;  objective,  1.5.5, 156, 
157;  adverbial,  158;  for  da- 
tive, 149 ;  dative+gen.,  149, 
156 ;  nearness,  1.50 ';  separa- 
tion,151,  absolute,1.52;  sub 
jective,  153 ;  objective,  l.M  ; 
partitive,  143, 1.54, 150 ;  with 
prepositions,  159 ;  adjective; 
with,  173 ;  possessive  for, 
175;  article  omitted, 170;  .u- 
rangement,  218,  219,  and  s-ce 
under  each  declension. 

gentile  derivatives,  125. 

German,  3;  printing  of. Vn^lo- 
Saxon,4;  Old  High,  letters, 
8;  u\  18;  umlaut,  19;  as- 
sibilation, 21  ;  shifting,  21'; 
u>aw,  41 ;  neuter  -era,  41  . 
abstracts  in  -in, 45;  rime  in, 
224, 22.5, 227,  and  see etiimol'i- 
(Ui,  cnwpnralive,  and  sijntax, 
comparative. 


250 


ENGLISH  INDEX. 


(Low)  Gcr.,  n,  29, 125. 
geniud,  TS,  88,  S'J ;  sjiitas,  197, 

r.i8, 1 ',»•>. 

frcsturo,  with  dative,  14S. 

givc+dativo,  148 ;  -fgeruud, 
19i»;  omitted,  ISG. 

fllet'iiiaii,  122. 

go,  witli  dative,  150;  as  future 
sign,  isy. 

fjoai,  Via. 

'iioule.tx,  nod!  I/,  122. 

Gothic  (McEso-),  3;  letter?,  S; 
breaking,  20;  shil'ting,  2!» : 
r-stcnis,  }u(  -  stems,  4:^  ;  ab- 
stracts in  -ein,45;  au<u,40, 
proi)er  names,  54 ;  rellex- 
ives,  OS  ;  dual,  S2,  S3 ;  law 
of  liual  consonants,  ",IT,  and 
see  ctinnclogji,  coinpamtive, 
and  si/iitax,  coinjiarative. 

grant,  with  dat.  and  geu.,  149, 
150. 

gravitation,  9,  26,  30,  36,  45, 47, 
49,  51,  S3,  114. 

Greek,3;  letteis,S;  accent, 30; 
neuters,  36;  proper  names, 
54 ;  versification,  223,  and 
see  ctiimoloijii,  comparative, 
and  nijntax,  comparative. 

Grimm's  law,  8,  29;  weak  ad- 
jectives, 59;  coDJugation,  78. 

gu<;',  IS. 

uuna,  9,  27. 

gutturals,  6, 7, 15, 16,  23, 112. 

li,  1';  >g,  p.  18,117:  break- 
ing, 20,  103  ;    shifting,  29. 

30. 

habit+inflnitive,  197. 

have,  sign  for  future,  perfect, 
pluperf.,  189,  201 ;  4-gerund, 
199;  -f  participle,  201. 

—head,  121. 

headlong,  128. 

healf,  with  numerals,  77, 182. 

Hebrew,  60,  68,  75. 

Hellenic,  3,  8. 

help-|-geuitive,  150. 

hemistich,  223. 

hen,  136. 

hendiadis,  141. 

heptameter,  223. 

her,  69, 175;  hern,  heorun,  175. 

heteroclites,  52,  64. 

heterogeneous,  52. 

hexameter,  223. 

Ilevse,  59. 

hiq'ht,  180. 

his,  09, 175. 

hit,  it,  syntax,  174, 14.1. 

honie,  128 ;  -ward,  122. 

-hood,  121. 

horse,  1.SC. 

how  often,  77. 

—7(f,  origin  of,  97, 112. 

hundred,  the  great,  70. 

hypallage,  141. 

hyperbaton,  141. 

hypercatalectic,  223. 

hypothetic  relative,  193; 
clause,  197. 

hysteron  proteron,  141. 

i,  how  made,  11 ;  y-ea,  y,  12  ; 
umlaut,  19;  breaking,  20,75; 
consonant,  15,  17;  shifting, 
30;  change  with  ff,  p,  117. 


i"-stems,  irt-stems,  sec  stem. 

!-umlaut,  see  tnnlaut. 

i,  13. 

ia^ea. 

ii"i,  14. 

iambus,  222,  223. 

Icelandic  verse,  224. 

ictus,  222. 

iC;  14. 

i-group  of  letters,  7,  20. 

illative  conjunction,  205, 209. 

imitatiou-(-dative,  150. 

imperative,  77, 78 ;  ia-stem,99, 
108,110;  sentence,  139;  syn- 
tax, 174, 188, 197 ;  indicative 
for,  189,190 ;  subjunctive  for, 
191 ;  arrangement  of,  215. 

imperfect,  78;  ablaut,  80;  con- 
tract, 81 ;  compound,  81 ;  in- 
flection indie,  84,  85,  90,  92, 
95,  98;  subjunctive,  86,  87, 
91,  93  ;  potential,  89,  91  ; 
syncopated,  95 ;  irregulars, 
li2-f ;  2d  sing,  in  -es,  110; 
syntax,  187, 188, 190, 194. 

impcrsouals+accusative,  145; 
-fdative,  150 ;  -f-genitivc-t- 
dative,  156;  subject  of,  185, 
187. 

incorporation  of  relative,  180. 

indeclinable  nouns,  52. 

indefinite  declension,  56+ ; 
pronoun,  71,  72,  174,  180; 
sufnxes,  123, 125;  adjective, 
172;  article,  174, 180;  numer- 
al, 182 ;  verb,  185, 193. 

independent  nominative,  144; 
particles,  184. 

Indie,  3,  8. 

indicative,  77  ;  strong  active, 
82-85  ;  passive,  90  ;  weak 
active,  83  ;  form  of  poten- 
tial, 89,  91 ;  syntax,  tenses 
of,  ISS-f  ;  mode,  190. 

indirect  object,  138 ;  asser- 
tion, 192  ;  question,  192  ; 
command,  197. 

Indo-European,  3  ;  vowel  sys- 
tem, consonant  system,  8. 

infinitive,  78,  88 ;  in  -ean,  94 ; 
syntax,  130,  140 ;  accusa- 
tive-j-,  142, 147;  general  dis- 
cussion, 197-|-  ;  adjective 
with,  172. 

inflection,  by  vowel  changes, 
79-82 ;  mode  suflixes,  'S2  ; 
personal  endings,  82-|- ;  in- 
die, present,  83, 84 ;  imperf., 
84,  85 ;  strong  verb,  82-91 ; 
weak  verb,  92-95 ;  variation 
in  present,  90, 97 ;  in  imper- 
fect, 98;  tables  of  variation, 
97-118;  irregular,  112-118; 
Northumbrian,  117 ;  decay 
of  endings,  English,  118;  re- 
lation to  versification,  228. 

influence,  object  of,  148, 149. 

inseparable  prefixes,  6. 

inserted  clauses,  arrangement 
in,  215. 

instrument,  suffix  of,  123. 

instrumental  case,  35,  38,  39, 
129;  syntax  of,  148, 150-154, 
17.3. 

intellectual  states,  syntax 
with,  156.    See  cortvition. 

interest,  object  of,  149. 


interjection,  V,i,  133  ;   syntax, 

139, 178,  2(12. 
interrogative  pronoun,  70,  71, 

72,  132  !  adverbs,  1S.3,  1S4  ; 

syntax,  178,  179  •   sentence, 

li59,  191  ;  conjunction,  207  ; 

object  in,  219;  arrangement, 

215, 219. 
intransitive  verb,  138;   perf., 

plupcrf.,b0,201;  syntax,  157, 

186, 189. 
ior^eo. 
i(">,  14. 
Irauic,  3. 
Irish,  29,  64. 
irregular    nouns,  52 ;    verbs, 

112-I-. 
it,  its,  68,  69 ;  syntax,  174. 
Italic,  3,  8. 
iteratives,  see  how  often. 

j,  peculiar  character  for,  4 ; 

and  see  i-cousonaut. 
Jutes,  1. 

— fcmrf,  121. 
kindred,  122. 
knoivledge,  122. 

1,  7, 15, 16, 18 ;  ul<il,  15 ;  met- 
athesis, 19 ;  <d,  30,  75. 

labial,  6,  T,  15,18, 23, 29, 39, 103. 

landscajje,  122. 

lantern,  121. 

Latin,  2 ;  vu=p,  IS ;  assibila- 
tion,  21;  accent,  30;  neu- 
ters>feminines,  36 ;  proi)cr 
names,  54 ;  perfects,  82  ;  ab- 
latives, 129;  arsis  and  the- 
sis, 223;  rime  in  Low  Latin, 
225 ;  verses  of  Anglo-Saxon 
poets,  225 ;  and  see  ctgmol- 
ogy,  comparative,  and  syn- 
tax, comparative. 

laugh,  syntax  with,  l.'iO. 

laxitverschiebung=^i!\\\{\\v\^. 

Layamon,  declension  in,  5.'i ; 
adjective,  65;  comparison, 
05;  pronouns,  72;  verbs,  99, 
118;  prepositions,  101,  170; 
1(7(0, 1 79 :  hpylc,  179;  evcri/ch, 
181 ;  verbals,  201. 

less,  syntax  with,  165. 

let,  190, 108. 

letters,  4 ;  sounds  of,  5. 

nice  (—^(c),  70, 122, 181. 

likeness,  syntax  with,  150. 

lingual,  7,  23. 

liquid,  7. 

listen,  syntax  with,  150. 

Lithuauic,  3  ;  instrumental, 
39  ;  weak  adjective,  59  ; 
thousand,  70. 

local,  see  place. 

locative  case,  3.5,  39,  45,  49,  50, 
57,  67,  148, 150,  152,  153. 

logical  subject;  predicate,  139. 

long  vowels,  0 ;  nature,  origin, 
12;  proof  of,  13;  monosylla- 
bles, 1.3,41.  See  progression, 
eompeiisation,  and  the  vow- 
els. 

—ly,  129. 

m,  7,  8, 11, 1.5,  83  ;  <Mi,  in,  49. 
make,  syntax  with,  147, 198. 
man,  130. 


ENGLISH  INDEX. 


251 


•ntan,  34,  4-3,  53, Tl,  1?!. 

marmer,  adverbs  of,  130 ;  syn- 
tax of,  151, 16S:  subjunctive 
in  clauses  of,  193  ;  connect- 
ives, 208 ;  arrangement,  210. 

masculine,  37.    See  gender. 

mastery,  syntax  with,  150, 151. 

material,  suffix  of,  126 ;  com- 
pounds of,  134;  syntax  of, 
154, 15T. 

inay  {inx(j),  195. 

means,  sutHx  of,  122 ;  syntax, 
151, 15S. 

measure,syntax  of,152,154,157. 

meet,  syntax  with,  150. 

mental  action,  syntax  with, 
155.    See  cognition,  feeling. 

metaplast,  52. 

metathesis,  9, 11,  IS,  19,  30,  32, 
41,  6T,  103,  111. 

meter,  223. 

middle  mutes,  T,  S,  29 ;  voice, 
1-16, 150, 1ST. 

Milton,  verse,  148,  22G. 

mimetic  variation,  9,  23. 

miss,  syntax  with,  157. 

mode,  77,  82 ;  syntax,  190-202. 

Moeso-Gothic,  see  Gothic. 

monometer,  223. 

monosyllables,  long,  13,  41. 

viot,  195. 

move,  sjTitax  with,  150,  201. 

multiplicatives,  77. 

multitude,  noun  of,  142. 

mutes,  7,  24,  29,  95. 

n,7,  8,  15;  yd,  16;  >?,  7M,  29  ; 
stops  umlaut  and  shifting, 
102. 

name,  appositive  of,  154 ;  syn- 
tax with,  147. 

narrative,  syntax  with,  138. 
See  verse. 

uasals,  7,  15,  24 ;  nasalizing, 
4.^  49, 100,  111. 

nc,  17. 

-nd<-nt,  75. 

5frf-stcms,  see  stem. 

nearness,  syntax  with,  150. 

need,  syntax  with,  157. 

needs,  128. 

negation,  particles  of,  132 : 
geu'r'l,  particular,  strength- 

•  ened,  183,184;  repeated, 134; 
condition,  194;  article  with, 
170. 

neuter,  30,  39;  strengthened 
by  -er,  41 ;  weak,  50 ;  -t,  57 ; 
^feminine,  30. 

nominative,  35;  syntax  of, 
144 ;  yields,  175. 

normal  sentence,  141. 

Norman  'iu<.P,  IS:  — ">  51. 

(Old)  Norse,  b>f,  18 ;  umlaut, 
19,  and  see  etymology,  com 
jmraiive,  and  syntax,  com- 
parative. 

Northumbrian,  1  ;  vowel 
sounds,  14  ;  gutturals,  18  : 
dentals,  99;  ecthlipsls,  met- 
athesis, epeuthesis,  prosthe- 
sis, 19  ;  labials,  19  ;  dechni 
sion,  strong,  49 ;  weak,  51 ; 
irregularities,  61 ;  pronoun 
60;  possessive,  08 ;  article, 
09;  demonstrative,  70;  in 
terrogative,  71 ;   verb,  117  ; 


indie,  present,  S3 ;  impcrf., 

85. 
noseling,  128. 
notional,  33, 119, 186. 
noun,  34,  134 ;   of  multitude, 

142  ;  -understood,  172.    See 

strong   nouns,  iveak  nowiS, 

substai2tive,  adjective. 
number,  3-1,  78, 143. 
numerals,  73-77 ;  syntax,  154, 

177,  181,  1S5;  arrangement, 

210,  218. 

0,11,12. 

6, 13. 

obey,  syntax  with,  148. 

object,  direct,  145, 197, 201 ;  de- 
iinitive,  140,  201  ;  double, 
146  ;  of  influence,  148,  149  ; 
interest,  149 ;  genitive  (ex- 
citing), 156,  201 ;  partitive, 
156  ;  separation,  156,  157  ; 
with  passives,  187;  of  cog- 
nition,192;  desire,192:  final, 
ISS  ;  arrangement,  218,-  219. 
See  .factitive. 

objective  combinations,  137, 
138,  140,  145,  148,  155,  218  ; 
componuds,  134 ;  verb,  1S8 ; 
genitive,154 ;  pnrticiple,201. 

ofhcers,  syntax  of,  153. 

oi,  15. 

omission  of  substantive,  172, 
186;  article,  170;  relative, 
ISO ;  verb,  186, 195 ;  conjunc- 
tion, 208,  209. 

07ie,  59, 71. 

ouomatope,  34. 

open  vowels,  6. 

opposition  (contention),  150. 

optative,  82,  87. 

ordinals,  73,  76,  77  ;  syntax, 
182. 

Ormulum,  declension  in,  55  ; 
adjective,  05;  comparison, 
65;  pronouns, 72;  numerals, 
73;  conjugation,  strong,  99, 
105  ;  weak,  111 ;  endings, 
lis  ;  prepositions,  161,  107, 
170  ;  vhatt,  178;  tvUo,  179. 

orthography,  4. 

ox,  136;  oxen,  51. 

p,  IS,  IS,  29. 

l)a!on,  222,  225. 

palatal,  0,  7.    See  guttural. 

paragoge,  9. 

parallelism,  215. 

parasitic  sounds,  20,  30  ;  g,  p, 
18;  i,v,20;  7(,  29. 

parasyutheta,  6, 134. 

I'arenl  Speech,  3, 8 ;  case-end- 
ings, 35;  gender,  30;  Ten- 
toiiic,  56  ;  declension  of  jis, 
ja,  jata,  50 ;  comparison  in, 
02,  03,  04 ;  pronouns  in,  ooi 
67,  08  ;  numerals,  75,  76  ■ 
tense  stems  in,  82 :  para- 
digm of  indie,  present,  83: 
of  imperfect,  85;  subjunc- 
tive pres.,  87 ;  i)a8sive,  110 ; 
derivation  in,  11S-|-. 

parts  of  siicfcii,  :',4. 

particii)U's,  Ts,  s-;,  y5;  syntax, 
1.39,  140,  18.'-,, -JOO,  201,  210. 

particles  of  interrogation,  ne 

1     gatior,  etc.,  132. 


particular  interrog.,  183  ;  ne- 
gation, 184. 

partitive  appositive,  143 ;  gen- 
itive, 154,  150;  =adjective, 
173. 

passive  voice,  90,  91, 116, 1S7, 
183-f ;  origin  of  form,  201. 

patrial  adjective,  125. 

patronymics,  125. 

pentameter,  223. 

people's  names  declined,  54. 

perfect,  78,  82;  transitive,  i4', 
85, 86 ;  intrans.,  84,  86 ;  syn- 
tax, 189;  origin  ofform,2ul. 

periphrastic  perf.,  82;  condi- 
tional, 89 ;  future,  198. 

person,  78;  endings  of,  82' 
proper  names,  54. 

personal  pronouns,  see  ]}ro' 
nouns;  object,  138. 

perspicuity  affecting  arrange- 
ment, 219. 

phonetic  decay,  36,  82. 

phonology,  6-32. 

pitch,  222. 

place,  nonns  of,  125;  adjec- 
tives of,  120 ;  adverbs,  cor- 
relative, 129;  in  compounds, 
134;  syntax,  accusative  of, 
148;  dat.  of,  152;  gen.,  157, 
158;  mode,  193;  connectives 
of,  207;  arrangement,  216, 
219,  and  see  locative. 

Piatt  Deutsch,  3. 

pleasant,  syntax  of,  199. 

lileonasm,"l41. 

pluperfect,  78,  84.  85,  SO ;  syn- 
tax, 188, 189,  origin  of  form, 
201. 

plural  endings,  30,  82 ;  for  sin- 
gular, 174. 

polysyndeton,  141. 

posse.ssi  ve,  08, 09 ;  compounds, 
134;  arrangement,  218. 

possessor,  dative  of,  150 ;  gen- 
itive of,  153. 

potentialmode,7S,  SS,  89;  syn- 
tax, 195, 197. 

Prukrit,  07. 

pray,  syntax  of,  150. 

precession,  0,  9,  26,  27;  exam- 
ples, 45,  57,  67,  75,  S3,  85, 114, 
131,  etc. 

predicate,  137;  grammatical, 
logical,  1.39;  agreement  of, 
142  ;  nominative,  144,  170  ; 
accusative,  147 ;  genitive, 
155;  adverb,  183. 

predicative  combination,  de- 
fined, 137,  139  ;  agreement 
in,  142;  participles,  200 ;  ar- 
rangement, 214  ;  quasi—, 
137, 142, 152, 155. 

l)refixes,  6, 130-f . 

preposition,  33, 34,  l."0-|- ;  svn- 
tax,  158-172 ;  article  after, 
170  ;  arrangemont  of,  210, 
219,  220 ;  relation  to  verse, 
225. 

present,  78;  active  indie, S3; 
subjunctive,  86,  S7 ;  weak, 
!I4,  96,  97;  reduplicate,  115; 
forms  of,  lS7-i-. 

preteritive  verb,  8.5, 112-114. 

price,  syntax  of,  151, 1.57. 

principal  parts  of  verb,  7S. 

proclitics,  13. 


252 


ENGLISH  INDEX. 


proirressioi),  C,  9,  23,  7?,  103, 
107,  lOS,  1U9,  111,  lI-_',  114. 

progressive  forms,  1SS-|-,  197 ; 
origin  of,  201. 

pronomen  revereutire,  174. 

l)r(mouns,  ;;;>,  ;u,  174;  person- 
al, CG,  7-2,  174,  17r>,  179;  pos- 
>cssivo,  OS,  (iO,  7J,  17o,  175, 
:iii(l  s^i'c  tli'iiKiii.stratice,  rclor- 
tire.  itiU'rni;iiifive,  indefinite. 

proper  iiaiiu's,  r>4. 

prosody,  •-'U-.'-'Ji'S. 

i)rosthesis,  9,  oO. 

I)rotasis,  194. 

prothcsis,  9,  IS,  19,  31. 

i)unctuatioii,  5. 

l)iirpose,134;  S3-ntax  with, 199. 

l)yrrhic,  222. 

q\\—cp,  5. 

(luality,  12,  13;  sufiis  of,  124; 
syntax,  153, 154. 

quantity,  12, 13,  222,  223. 

qiiautitatives,  217,  21S. 

quasi-clauses,  quasi  feet,  qua- 
si-predicative, quasi-suffix- 
es,  see  clatise,  feet,  etc. 

questions,  183,  184;  strength- 
eued  by  cpedan,  secgan,  etc., 
183;  indirect,  192.  See  ia- 
tcrrogatives. 

r,  7,  S,  15, 16,  IS.  See  breaking, 
s'em. 

radicle,  33;  in  pronouns,  Co; 
numerals,  75 ;  derivation, 
118;  suffixes,  119. 

ready,  sjTitax,  199. 

reality,  190. 

receive,  syntax,  150. 

reciprocals,  175. 

reduplication,  6 ;  contracted, 
13,14,32;  in  numerals,  75; 
verbs.  82,  85,  108,  109 ;  pres- 
ents, 115, 110;  in  derivation, 
118. 

reflexive,  68 ;  syntax,  146, 150, 
L-ie,  174, 175, 1S6. 

refuse,  syntax,  149, 156. 

regard,  syntax,  147. 

relational,  33,  129  ;  genitive, 
153;  verb,  186. 

relative  pronoun,  70,  72  ;  syn- 
tax, — personal  as,  175,  179, 
178-180;  demonstrative  as, 
178  ;  interrog.,  179  ;  incor- 
poration,180,  omission,180; 
order,  219,  220. 

relative  clauses,  adverbs  in, 
184 ;  subjunctive  in,  193. 

relics,49,53,  63, 116. 

remain,  syntax,  150. 

remember,  156. 

repeated  subject,  114, 174. 

repetition,  152. 

respect  of,  151, 199. 

result,  suffix,  124;  mode,  193, 
195.     See  consecutice. 

Rhyming  Poem,  226. 

ruythm,  222,  225. 

rhythmical  accent,  30. 

ri'jhteovs,  122. 

rihie  (rhyme),  223 ;  letters,  224. 

Roman  populace,  15. 

Romanic,  156,  216,  218,  225. 

roots,  33, 34;  mixed, 64;  in —7), 
97;  —a—,  100;  liquid,  100; 


nasal,  100 ;  two  consonants, 
102,103,108;  —2— ,103;  — u— , 
105,  —a—  —a—,  107,  108, 
109  ;  —d—,  — eu— ,  — *-, 
—e—,  —6—,  —a—  109,  110; 
— o— ,  111 ;  — u— ,  112 ;  in  de- 
rivation, 1 18. 

rough  mutes,  7. 

ruckumlaut,  sec  umlaut. 

runes,  4,  IS. 

s,  5, 8,15 :  <rf,  19, 30,  S3 ;  >r,  30 ; 
>st,  83 ;  =z,  i8. 

— s,  Norman,  51. 

same,  70. 

Sandwich  Islanders,  15. 

Sanskrit,  3 ;  letters,  S ;  accent 
in,  30;  w>ai'j  41 ;  reflexive, 
68;  conjugation  classes,  79, 
114-116;  beginnings  of  ab- 
laut, 79-|-;  assimilation  by 
m,  n,  I,  r,  SO;  periphrastic 
perfect  in  kar,  82 ;  dual,  82, 
83;  causative,  79, 127;  versi- 
flcation,  223 ;  and  see  etijmol- 
ogij, comparative,  and  sgntax, 
comparative. 

Saxon,  1,  3 :  Old  Saxon,  2,  3 ; 
vowels,  8 ;  labials,  18 ;  ab- 
stracts (=Goth.  -eins),  45; 
verse,  224,  227.  See  etymolo- 
gy, comparative,  and  syntax, 
comparative.  See  alsoScnti- 
Saxon,  West  Saxon,  Anglo- 
Saxon. 

sc,  16,  21-|-  ;  breaking,  20. 

Scandinavian,  3,  29.  See  Ice- 
landic, Norse. 

section,  in  verse,  223. 

seldom,  128. 

self,  70, 177. 

Semi-Saxou,  1, 4  ;  j,  4,  and  see 
Layamon,  Orrmdum. 

Semitic,  75 ,  vowel  change  in 
inflection,  80  ;  s3Titax,  214  ; 
and  see  Hebrew. 

semi- vowel  (/, ;/;  tt,  ;>),  gemi- 
nation, 47,61. 

sensation,  syntax  of,  145. 

sentence,  kinds  of,  139 ; 
abridged,  140 ,  and  see  clause. 

separation,  syntax  of,  151, 156, 
157. 

sex,  136. 

Shakespeare,  double  compari- 
son, 64 ;  adjective  endings, 
65;  verb  endings,  118;  pre- 
fix gc;  lis. 

shall,  189, 196. 

sharing,  syntax  of,  150. 

she,  68, 177. 

sheep,  136. 

shifting  (JautverscMehung),  de- 
fined, 9,  28,  29  ;  vowels  > 
vowels,  28  ;  fl>a;,  11,  27,  41, 
4.5,  58,  60,  63,  97,  99,  197  ;  «> 
x>c,  100, 102;  a>o,  27;  «>/, 
67 .  «>a'>e,  27,  60, 103, 110  ; 
cdye,  13,  14,  105 ;  fy>e,  14, 
1.%  10.5,  108,  109;  2/>i,  112; 
vowels>consonants,  29;  i> 
g,  30  ;  u>v,  41 ;  consonants 
>vo\vels,  28, 29 ;  consonants 
>co  -  ordinate  consonants, 
29;  consonants  to  cognate 
consonants  (Grimm's  law), 
29,  67,  75.  S3,  85,  S7,  88 ;   b>f 


>i'.  30, 117;  rf>?,  30,  75;  r.> 
/(.,  30  ;  A->/,  75  ;  in::>v,  67 ;'  bh 
>«i,  45,  49 ;  rf>s,  Z,  19,  30, 
83  ;  «>r,  30. 

short  vowels,  6,  8, 11. 

sideling,  128. 

simple  words,  118 ;  sentences, 
139;  subject,  18.5. 

simulation,  9,  28, 131. 

singular,  78, 142, 185. 

size,  syntax  of,  154. 

Slavonic,  3 ;  assibilation,  21  ; 
instrumental,  39 ;  weak  ad- 
jective, 59 ;  thousand,  76. 

smooth  mutes,  7. 

some  (sum),  with  numerals,77 ; 
syntax,  143,  181 ;  soine  deal, 
128. 

sonants,  7,  15,  23;  rules  for 
change  of,  10. 

source,  syntax  of,  103, 166. 

space,  syntax  of,  148;  157, 159. 
See  yjlace. 

specification  (adjunct), 151, 157. 

spirant,  7. 

spondee,  222. 

—St,  law  for,  97. 

steadfast,  121. 

stem  (nouns),  deflned,34;  end- 
ings, 36 ;  in  -a,  39-|-,  57 ;  -ia, 
41,42,43,47,60;  -ga,<il\  -ha, 
41,  61  ;  -pa,  41,  61 ;  -a,  44, 
45 ;  -?,  42-17,  57  ;  -«,  48,  49, 
60,  54,  47  ;  -an,  50,  51,  59 ;  -;•, 
43,53;  -wd,  43,53;  relics  of 
other  consonant  stems,  53. 
VERB-stems,  78  ;  with  gem- 
ination, 97;  in  -ia,  99,  108, 
115;  tense  stems,  82;  n  in- 
serted,116;  reduplicatcd,115, 
116 ;  relational  adverbial, 
129.    See  theme. 

strengthening  s  to  s<,83 ;  stems 
by  -er,  41  ;  pronouns,  175  ; 
negatives,  interrogatives, 
183. 

stress,  "22. 

strong  nouus,  36,  49 ;  adjec- 
tives, 66  ;  syntax,  173 ;  verbs, 
78,  83+,  98,"  126. 

8Ubject,137;  grammatical, log- 
ical,139;  repeated,143;  nom- 
inative, 144 ;  accusative,  147 : 
simple,185;  compound,  cop- 
ulate, 185 ;  omitted,  186  ;  ar- 
rangement of,  214,  220. 

subjective  verb,  138 ;  genitive, 
153. 

subjunctive,  77;  present,  im- 
perfect, 86,  87 ;  endings  in 
auxiliaries,  87 ;  potential,  89, 
syntax,  190  -{-_ ;  in  leading 
clauses,  191;  insubordinate 
substantive,  192 ;  adjective, 
193;  adverb,  193-195;  for  im- 
perative, 197. 

sub-letters,  224. 

subordinate  clause,  139 ;  ques- 
tions in,  184 ;  subjunctive 
in,  192-195 ;  arrangement  of, 
21.5,220;  conjunctions,  20.5- 
208. 

substantives,  equivalents  of, 
139;  clauses,  140,  192,  200; 
arrangement  of,  215, 220.  See 
noun. 

such,  70. 


ENGLISH  INDEX. 


253 


suffering  object,  13S. 

suffixes,  relational,  33 :  of  com- 
parison, 62+ ;  mode,  82 ;  de- 
rivation, 121, 122, 123-12S. 

Buperlative,  62-64 ;  in  numer- 
als, T5,  76;  prepositions  and 
prefixes,  132  ;  sj-ntax,  154  . 
176. 

supremacy,  syntax  of,  1.57. 

surd, 7,15, 23 ;"  rules  for  change. 
10;  roots,  95. 

swearing,  syntax  of  152. 

swine,  136. 

synseresis,  10, 11,  32. 

synalepha,  10,  32. 

sj-ncope,  9,  30, 31,  41, 47,  60,  70  : 
in  imperfects  and  p.-part.,95. 

synesis,  141, 142, 144, 173,186+. 

synizesis,  10,  d2. 

syn tax,  137-221 ;  figures  of,141. 

sjTitax,  comparative,  apiios- 
itive  (Sansk.,  Lat.,  Ger.. 
O.  H.  G.,  O.  Nor.,  Fr.),  l43, 
144;  Nominative,  facti- 
tive (Sansk.,  Gr.,  Goth.,  M. 
H.  G.),  144;  Vocative, 
(Sansk.,  Lat,  Fr.),  144,  145; 
Accusative  reflexive 
(Sansk., Gr., Goth.), 146;  cog- 
nate (Sansk., Gr., Ger., En^.); 
double  object  (Sansk.,  Gr., 
Lat., Goth., O.  H.  G.),146, 147 
with  infinitive  (Sansk.,  Gr., 
Lat.),  147;  factitive  (Saask.), 
147 ;  in  adverbial  combina- 
tions (Sansk.,  Greek,  Lat., 
Goth.),  14S:  Dative,  of  in 
flueuce  (Sansk.,  Greek,  Lat., 
Goth.,  O.  H.  G.),  149 ;  ofpos 
sessor  (Sansk.,  Greek,  Lat.) 
150;  nearness  (Sansk.,  Gr., 
Lat.,  Goth.),  1.50;  mastery, 
use  (Lat.,  Goth..  O.  Sax., 
Korse,O.H.G.,M.H.G.),l.-^i; 
separation  (Lat.,  Gr.),  151; 
adverbial  (Sansk.,  Gr.,  Lat 
in),  151  ;  agent  (Sansk.,  Gr., 
Lat.),  151  ;  after  compara- 
tives (Sansk.,  Gr.,  Lat.,  Teu- 
tonic), 1.52 ;  absolute  (San- 
skrit, Gr.,  Lat.,  Teut).,  152 
Instrumental  (Sansk. 
Gr.,  Lat.,  Goth.,  O.  Sax.,  O 
H.  Ger.),  1.53  ;  Genitive, 
general  (Sanskr.),  103;  cog- 
nate (O.  Norse),  1.54 ;  aggre- 
gation (Sansk.),  154;  char- 
acteristic (Sansk.,  Gr.,  Lat.), 
154 ;  of  name  (Gr.,  Lat.,  Fr., 
Semi-Sax.),  1.55;  predicative 
(Gr.,  Lat.),  155;  exciting  ob- 
ject (Sansk., Gr., Lat., Teut.), 
1.56;  partitive  (Uomauic), 
156;  Prepositions 
iGoth.,  O.  IL  G.,  O.  Nor.se,  O. 
Sax.,  Lat.,  Greek,  Layamon, 
Orm.,  Chaucer,  Wycliffe, 
Spenser),  1.59-172 ;  Adjec- 
tive (Goth.,  IL  Ger.),  174; 
Pronoun  (Norman, O.IL 
<;.,  O.  Norse),  174,  1-M;  pos- 
sessive (Layamon,  English), 
175;  demimstr.  and  article 
((iolh.,  O.  IL  G.,  Lat.,  (ier.), 
176,  177  ;    iulerrog.    (Orm., 


Lat.),  178 ;  relative  (Sansk., 
Gr.,Lat.,Goth.,O.H.G.,Ger., 
Semi-Sax.,  Engl.),  178,  179; 
article  (Gr.,  Lat.,  Goth.,  Ger., 
O.  Norse),  180  ;  Adverbs 
(Gr.,  Lat.,  Teut.),  183,  184  ; 
Verb,  subject  of  (Lat.,  Gr., 
Engl.,  etc.),  185,  186;  voice 
(Sansk.,  Greek,  Lat.,  Goth., 
Teut),  77, 146, 150,187 ;  tense 
(Lat.Engl.),  189, 190;  mode 
(Gr.,  Latin),  190-201  ;  Ar- 
rangenicnt  of  words 
(Lat., Ger.),  214;  predicative 
comb.  (Indo-Europ.,  Semi- 
tic), 214,  (French,  Romanic) 
216;  attrib.  comb.  (Gr.,  Lat, 
Teut.,  Romanic),  216,  (Gr., 
Lat,  Engl.,  Ger.,  Fr.,  Span., 
It.),  217,  (Romanic)  218  ;  ob- 
jective comb.  (Germanic), 
219;  adverbial  comb.  (Ger- 
manic), 220. 

t,  7,  8, 15,  29;  <d,  19;  Gothic, 
97. 

— t,  neuter  ending,  37, 57. 

take,  syntax,  150. 

tavern,  121. 

teach,  syntax,  146, 147, 193. 

tenses,  78  ;  stems  in  Parent 
Speech,  82;  sj'utax,lS7;  pro- 
gressive, ISS;  sequence,  190. 

tetrameter,  223. 

Teutonic,  3,  29, 30,  76, 129, 152. 

th=/),17;  rf,  97. 

thank,  sjTitax,  149, 156. 

the  more,  177. 

theme,  34 ;  of  nouns  in  -ad, 
-at,  -els,  -sc,  41 ;  plurals  in 
-cr,  41 ;  -iinij,  47 ;  i,  eo,  py-ti 
>o,  h,  61 .  verb,  78 ;  in  -cc, 
-II,  -c.  111 ;  nasal,  111 ;  gut- 
tural, 112. 

thesis,  222,  223, 225. 

they,  their,  tliem,  68,  69, 177. 

thousand,  76. 

till,  167. 

time,  sufl3s  of,  125;  adverbs, 
1.30;  compounds,  134;  syn- 
tax, 152,  1.57,  158,  201,  207; 
subjunctive  in  clauses  of, 
193;  arrangement,  216;  in 
verse,  222 ;  and  see  te7i!tc. 

?o,  167-I-;  with  the  infinitive, 
197;  -da  V,  128. 

tonic,  222,  225. 

touch,  syntax,  15G. 

transitive  verbs,  138,  145,  1,56, 
1S6;  perfect,  1)1  uperfect,  86, 
201.    See  direct  object. 

tribrach,  222. 

trills,  16. 

trimeter,  223. 

trochee,  222,  223,  22.5. 

truth,  18.S. 

u,.5,  6,7,8, 11,12;  >?a12;  eo^ 
14  ;  =v,  18 ;  >aP,  i(p,  41 .  47. 

M-declensiou  for  Latin,  Greek 
a-decl.,54. 

M-group,  7,  26. 

umlaut,  6,  19,  23;  rule,  10;  in 
verbs, 96+;  stems  from, 123: 
concealed,  riickunilaut,  96 ; 


stopped  by  n,  102  ;  a-um- 
laut,  examples,  12, 19,  83,  97, 
99,  100,  102,  103,  105,  114 ;  !- 
umlaut,  11,  12,  13,  14,  19,  43, 
45,  47,  60,  62,  97, 100, 105,  107, 
108, 109, 110,  111,  112;  T!-uui- 
laut,ll,12,20,41. 

underneath,  170. 

use,  syntax,  160, 151, 157. 

v=u,  IS. 

value,  sjmtax,  154. 

variation,  9, 97, 98 ;  table  of,  in 
verbs,  99-103, 117. 

verb,  34,  77 ;  conjugation,  see  ; 
preteritive,  see  ;  irregular, 
114-118;  thesubstautive,114; 
derivation,  118 ;  compound, 
134 ;  syntax,  185-201 ;  kinds 
of,  186  ;  agreement,  185, 186 ; 
omission,  186 ;  aiTangement, 
214,  218. 

verbal,  in  -mig,  -inrj,  -c.nde,  201 ; 
syntax,  1.53,' 201;  accent,  222. 

verse,  222,  223 ;  common  nar- 
rative, 225 ;  long,  227. 

vocal  chords,  11;  utterance,  11. 

vocative,  34,  35  ;  syntax,  139, 
144,145,173. 

voice,77;  middle,  14C,  150, 187; 
syntax,  187. 

vowels,  6 ;  Indo-European  ta- 
i)le,  8;  groups,  6,  7;  Anglo- 
Saxon,  11-15  ;  changes,  19- 
32.    See  each  vowel. 

vriddhi,  27. 

w</',lS,19. 

want=)wcrf,  157. 

watch,  syntax,  1.50. 

way,  sjTitax,  158. 

weak  nouns,  36, 50  •  aujcctivca, 

56,  59,  60,  173  ;  verl)s,  78,  83, 

85,  92+,  94  ;   mixed,  irreg., 

116, 117, 126, 127. 
wealth,  syntax,  153. 
weathering  of  endings,  36,  55, 

65,  72,  lis,  131. 
wedlock,  122. 
weight,  syntax,  154. 
leeladay,  133. 
West  Saxons,  1. 
what,  178. 
ii'hilom,  123. 
who,  179. 

whole,  see  partitive. 
will,  189,  190. 
winnimip,  122. 
wish,  syntax,  1.50. 
woman,  122. 
word,  33. 

worthv,  syntax,  199. 
Wycliffile,  1, 179. 

K,  5,  7, 17. 

V,  11 :  <u,  ea,  eo,  i,  e,  ro,  12. 

i;lc,  70. 
i/iin,  .59. 
'(,( liore,  ns. 

■/.,  7, 18, 19. 
zeugma,  141. 


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